语言学教案Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (2)
What is linguistics? 1.6 What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the branch of learning which studies the languages of any and all human societies.It can be defined as the scientific study of language.In a word, linguistics studies the general principles upon which all languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in the societies in which they are used. The guiding principles for linguistic studies:
Exhaustivene---the aim is to specify totally the linguistic contrasts in a set of data, and ultimately in the language as a whole.Consistency---total statements should be logically self-consistent.Economy---a criterion requires that, other things being equal, an analysis should aim to be as short and use as few terms as poible.It is a measure which permits one to quantify the number of formal constructs used in arriving at a solution to problem, and has been used, explicitly or implicitly, in most areas of linguistic investigation.Objectivity---linguistic analyses should be as objective as poible.Truth should come from facts
1.7 Some basic distinctions in linguistics
1.7.1 speech and writing
the primacy of speech: 1) Speech is prior to writing historically 2) genetically, children always learn to speak before they learn to write.
The importance of writing: 1) space displacement 2) time displacement 3) a visual recording of a speech 1.7.2 Descriptive or prescriptive
descriptive---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.Prescriptive---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctne as to how language should be used.
(Swi linguist, Ferdinand de Sauure) synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‗state‘ of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development – for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms.
Langue---refers to the language system shared by a community of speakers Parole---is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.
(Noam Chomsky) Competence----refers to a person‘s knowledge of his language, the system of rules which he has mastered so that he is able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences, and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.Performance---refers to language seen as a set of specific utterances produced by native-speakers, as encountered in a corpus.
(M.A.K.Halliday) Linguistic potential and actual linguistic behavior---what a person can ‗do‘ and what a person ‗does‘.
1.8 Major branches of general linguistics
Phonetics---the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, claification and transcription.Three branches of the subject are general recognized: (1) articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made by the vocal organs; (2) acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear; (3) auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain.
Phonology---studies the sound system of languages.The aim of phonology is to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sound found in a language, and to make as general statements as poible about the nature of sound systems in the languages of the world Morphology---studies the structure of forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construct.
Syntax---the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentence structure, and of the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in sequences.
Semantics---A major branch of linguistics devoted to the study of meaning in language.
1.9 Use of linguistics
Linguistics and teaching Applied linguistics---A branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arise in other areas of experience.The most well-developed branch of applied linguistics the teaching and learning of foreign languages, and sometimes the term is used as if this were the only field involved.
Linguistics and society Sociolinguistics---studies all aspects of the relationship between language and society.Sociolinguistics study such matters as the linguistic identity of social groups, social attitudes to language, standard and non-standard forms of language, the patterns and needs of national language use, social varieties and levels of language, the social basis of multilingualism, and so on.
Linguistics and literature Literary stylistics---deal with the variations characteristic of literature as a genre and of the ‗style‘ of individual authors.
Linguistic and psychology Psycholinguistics---studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and the psychological procees thought to underlie that behavior: (a) the mental proce tat a person uses in producing and understanding language, and (b) how humans learn language.
Some other applications: Anthropological linguistics---a branch that studies language variation and use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man, as investigated using the theories and methods of anthropology.Neurolinguistics---a branch which studies the neurological basis of language development and use in man, and attempts to construct a model of the brain‘s control over the procees of speech and hearing.Mathematical linguistics----studies the mathematical properties of language, usually employing concepts of a statistical or algebraic kind.A contribution has also come from information theory (e.g.quantification of such notions as redundancy and functional load) and from computational analysis (e.g.the use of algorithms).The main application of mathematical notions has been in the formalization of linguistic theory, as developed in relation to Generative linguistics; but several other areas of language study have been investigated using these methods.Computational linguistics---a branch in which computational techniques and concepts re applied to the elucidation of linguistic and phonetic problems.Several research areas have developed, including speech synthesis, speech recognition, automatic translation, the making of concordances, the testing of grammars and the many areas where statistical counts and analyses are required.
语言学教案[ə], weakened pronunciation of any vowel, positioned in the center of the cardinal vowel frame.
2.5 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription
2.5.1 Coarticulation
The variation that a speech sound undergoes under the influence of neighbouring sounds has acquired the well-established label ‗coarticulation‘.
2.5.2 phonetic transcription
a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.
2.5.3 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)
IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet which is devised by the International Phonetic Aociation in 1988 on the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Jespersen in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle: using a separate letter for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
2 .5.4 Two ways to transcribe speech sounds
Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only.
It‘s normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.
Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.
语言学教案term used to denote the smallest sound units that can be segmented from the acoustic flow of speech and which can function as semantically distinctive unites. 2.8.3 Allophones
PHONEvariants of a same phoneme.
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTIONfeatures that can distinguish meanning in phonemes of a language.Because voicing can distinguish one phoneme from another, it is a DISTINCTIVE FEATURE for English obstruents.BINARY FEATURES 2.11 Syllables
SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES—those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.
2.11.1 The syllable structure
MONOSYLLABIC --- POLYSYLLABIC σ= ONSET+ RHYME RHYME= NUCLEUS + CODA
2.11.2 Sonority scale
DEGREE OF SONORITY
2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal onset principle
MAXIMAL ONSET PRINCIPLE
2.12 Stre
STRESS refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
2.13 Pitch
Pitch is the rate of vibration of the vocal folds.
In acoustic phonetics, the number of tonal oscillations per second, or in auditory pho¬netics the auditory characteristics correspond¬ing to the different tonal oscillations.In phonology, suprasegmental feature of linguistic expreions.In tonal languages, pitch is distinctive.
Different rates of vibration produce what is known in acoustic terms different frequencies, and in auditory terms as different pitches.
Pitch variations may be distinctive like phonemes, that is, they may contribute to distinguish between different words.In this function, pitch variations are called TONES, and languages using tones are called TONE LANGUAGES.of which Chinese is one.
2.14 Intonation
Intonation is the system of levels (rising and falling) and variations in pitch sequences within speech.
When pitch, stre and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as INTONATION.引用内容： Phonological rules
The traditional approach in Phonology has always been to concentrate on • basic units of phonology, e.g.distinctive features and phonemes,
• construction of larger units out of these basic units, e.g.syllables, words, sentences,
• description of the syntagmatic and paradigmatic phonological relations with which phonological structures are made,
• in particular the structures of syllables and words.
However, the discuion of these topics is full of paradoxes until one develops exact analytic criteria and distinguishes between different levels of phonological analysis such as the following:
Speech signal:
articulatory, acoustic and auditory correlates of linguistic units.
Phonetic:
segmentation of utterances into identifiable chunks by detailed phonetic criteria from one or all of the phonetic domains (articulatory, acoustic, auditory).
Phonemic:
segmentation into phones and claification of phones into phonemes according to the criteria of contrastivene (either complementary distribution in phonetic contexts, or free variation, or both) and minimal phonetic similarity (i.e.using the minimum of phonetic features required to keep phonemes apart).
Morphophonemic:
further claification of phonemes into morphophonemes by taking morphological contexts (i.e.the contexts of sounds acro boundaries between morphemes in inflected, derived and compound words) as well as phonetic contexts into account.
The relation between Morphophonemic, Phonemic and Phonetic levels is often thought of as three levels of representation linked by rules (morphophonological, phonological, and phonetic detail rules), as shown in the Figure.
There are two main kinds of phonological rule:
Structure-defining rules:
Structure-defining rules determine the construction of phonemes out of distinctive features, the construction of syllables or morphemes out of phonemes).These are sometimes called redundancy rules, since they formulate generalisations about structureInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
Origin
The IPA was first published in 1888 by the Aociation Phonétique Internationale (International Phonetic Aociation), a group of French language teachers founded by Paul Pay.The aim of the organisation was to devise a system for transcribing the sounds of speech which was independent of any particular language and applicable to all languages.
A phonetic script for English created in 1847 by Isaac Pitman and Henry Ellis was used a a model for the IPA.
Uses
The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words. The IPA has often been used as a basis for creating new writing systems for previously unwritten languages.
The IPA is used in some foreign language text books and phrase books to transcribe the sounds of languages which are written with non-latin alphabets.It is also used by non-native speakers of English when learning to speak English.
语言学教案Chapter 4 Syntax
Chapter 4 Syntax
SYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
4.1 The traditional approach
Grammatical category: a cla or group of items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a language Number, gender, case: for nouns, pronouns.Tense, aspect: verbs
4.1.1 Number, gender and case
Person, gender, number, and case are related to nominals. Person occurs in personal pronouns.Personal pronouns always belong to one of three persons: first person if they refer to the speaker or writer (or to a group including the speaker or writer), second person if they refer to the audience of the speaker or writer (or to a group including the audience), and third person if they refer to anyone else (if the noun or pronoun is the subject, then its person will also affect the verb).Nouns and other types of pronouns are always in the third person.
NUMBER is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word claes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.
GENDER displays such contrasts as \"masculine: feminine: neuter\", \"animate: inanimate\", etc, for the analysis of word claes.
The CASE category is used in the analysis of word claes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
4.1.2 Tense and aspect
Tense, along with mood, voice and person, are three ways in which verb forms are frequently characterized, in languages where those categories apply.There are languages (mostly isolating languages, like Chinese) where tense is not expreed anywhere in the verb or any auxiliaries, but only as adverbs of time, when needed for comprehension; and there are also languages (such as Ruian) where tense is not deemed very important and emphasis is instead placed on aspect. tense
Tense is the grammatical term that refers to the time when the action of the verb occurs: past, present, future.The time frame of an action is usually established by referring to the present moment. aspect
Aspect, unlike tense, is not concerned with placing events on a time line.Rather, aspect is concerned with making distinctions about the kinds of actions that are described by verbs: progreive actions, punctual actions, habitual actions, etc. mood
Mood is a grammatical category distinguishing verb tenses.There are three moods in English: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative and four in French: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and imperative.All of these moods, except the imperative, may be conjugated in different tenses.Each of these moods has a different function. voice
Voice is a grammatical category describing the relationship between a verb and its subject.Voice is either active or paive.Active voice refers to the situation where the subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb.
4.1.3 Concord and government
CONCORD may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word claes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).
GOVERNMENT requires that one word of a particular cla in a given syntactic construction with another word of a particular syntactic cla shall exhibit the form of a specific category.4.2 The structural approach
Structuralism or structural linguistics is a term used in linguistics referring to any approach to the analysis of language that pays explicit attention to the way in which linguistic features can be described in terms of structures and systems.
4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
Positional relation POSITIONAL RELATION, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
Relation of substitutability RELATION OF SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to claes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in the same sentence structures.
Relation of co-occurrence the relation of CO-OCCURRENCE one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence a word of another set or cla to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis
IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS also called Ic Analysis, in linguistics, a system of grammatical analysis that divides sentences into succeive layers, or constituents, until, in the final layer, each constituent consists of only a word or meaningful part of a word.(A constituent is any word or construction that enters into some larger construction.) In the sentence ―The old man ran away,‖ the first division into immediate constituents would be between ―the old man‖ and ―ran away.‖ The immediate constituents of ―the old man‖ are ―the‖ and ―old man.‖ At the next level ―old man‖ is divided into ―old‖ and ―man.‖ The term was introduced by the United States linguist Leonard Bloomfield in 1933, though the underlying principle is common both to the traditional practice of parsing and to many modern systems of grammatical analysis.
Marking methods: TREE DIAGRAMS or RACKETING
4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
ENDOCEWTRIC CONSTRUCTION is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.
Exocentric CONSTRUCTION refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable \"Centre\" or ―Head‖ inside the group.
4.3 The generative approach 4.3.1 Deep and surface structures
Deep-Structure: underlying structure, which is generated by the base component.The term \'deep structure\' is avoided in recent literature and replaced by D-structure, or d-structure.
Surface structure: syntactic structure derived from Deep structure ( D-structure) by means of transformational rules.Also S-structure.
4.3.2 Government and binding theory.
In Chomsky (1981), the grammatical framework of Universal Grammar (UG) is outlined as consisting of interacting subsystems.These subsystems include subcomponents of rule system of grammar and subsystems of principles.The rule system of grammar is composed of the following components: (1) a.lexicon b.syntax (i) categorial component (ii) transformational component c.PF-component d.LF-component
The Lexicon and the Categorial Component constitute the Base.The Lexicon contains a list of all the words in a language, together with specification of their idiosyncratic syntactic, semantic, phonological and morphological properties.The Categorial Component comprises a set of category-neutral rule-scheme and rule-constraints.The interaction of the Categorial Component and the Lexicon generates the D-structures.That is, the Categorial Component of the Base generates a set of abstract prelexical structures which are lexicalized by the insertion of items from Lexicon.The D-structure serves as the input to the Transformational Component, where ) transforms thesucceive application of a variety of Movement rules (Move D-structures into the corresponding S-structures.The PF-component contains rules that aign the S-structures with PF-representations and the rules in LF-component aign the S-structure with LF- representations.
The subsystems of principles including the following theories:
(2) a.bounding theory b.government theory c.theta-theory d.binding theory e.case theory f.control theory
Bounding theory sets constraints for movement operations.Government theory specifies the local relations between two categories, a head or an antecedent and its dependent.Theta theory is concerned with the aignment of thematic roles.Binding theory establishes the interpretation relations between some of the overt or non-overt NPs and their antecedents.Case theory deals with aignment of abstract Case and control theory relates PRO with its referent antecedent.
These subsystems are related to each other.The theory of government establishes the basis for other theories.In bounding theory, conditions for movement are specified in terms of government, and in -role aignment are realizedCase theory and theta theory, Case aignment and under government relations.
GB理论的阅读材料：
A step-by-step introduction to the Government and Binding theory of syntax by Cheryl A.Black
