1.cardinal rankings: one of the two ways to measure utility.In this way, numerical values are aigned to represent utility.
基数排列：衡量效用的两种方法之一，用这种方法，数值就被用来代表效用
2.ordinal rankings: one of the two ways to measure utility.In this way, utility is measured without a specified unit.Ordinal rankings provide
the order of preference without absolute scale of difference in preference.
序数排列：一个效用的测量两种方式。在这种方式中，它是没有指定的单元测试。
3.perfect substitution: refers to the products in very much similar qualities that a consumer would just as soon have one as the other.完全替代品：是指产品在非常相似，消费者宁愿有一个为其他的品质
4.order promising（订单承诺） : to grant a customer to ship or deliver an order.
5.market-oriented system : a system in which price , output, and volume decisions are made through the interaction of supply and demand
market forces rather than by a central government authority.
市场经济体系：在价格，输出系统，和体积的决定是通过市场供求的力量，而不是由一个中央政府机构的相互作用
6.trade credit : credit between resellers.usually a seller trusts a buyer and allows the buyer to pay later but within certain period.
贸易信贷:信贷之间通常,.卖方信任一个买家,并允许买方付款后但在一定时期内。
7.Four main forms of market structure and organization stand out:
（1）perfect competition--- many sellers of a standardized product.（完全竞争）
（2）monopolistic competition--- many sellers of a differentiated product.(垄断竞争）
（3）oligopoly competition---few sellers of either a standardized or a differentiated product.(寡头竞争）
(4) monopoly---a single sellers of a product for which there is no close substitute.（完全垄断）
完全竞争—很多商家卖标准化的产品 ； 垄断竞争—很多商家卖差异化的产品
寡头竞争 ---少来那个商家生产出售相同或者差异商品 ；完全垄断—个商家卖某种产品，产品无相近替代）
8.policy makers have at their command two broad claes of policies with which to affect the economy.Monetary policy is controlled by the
Federal Reserve System(the Fed).The instruments of monetary policy are changes in the stock of money, changes in the interest rate—the discount rate—at which the Fed lends money to banks, and some controls over the banking system Fiscal policy is under the control of the Congre, and usually is initiated by the executive branch of the government.The instruments of fiscal policy are tax rates and government spending.(page12)
政策制定者可以自由地运用两大类政策影响经济。货币政策由联邦 储备系统管理，其政策工具是调节货币储备，调节利率——贴现率——联邦储备系统借款给银行的利率和一些经由银行系统实施的控制。财政政策由国会控制，通常通过政府行政机构发挥作用，它的政策工具是税率和政府支出。
9.political economy affects stabilization policy in more ways than through the costs which policy makers of different political persuasions
attach to inflation and unemployment, and the risks they are willing to undertake in trying to improve the economic situation.There is also the so-called political busine cycle, which is based on the observation that election results are affected by economic conditions.When the economic situation is improving and the unemployment rate is falling , incumbent presidents tend to be reelected.There is thus the incentive to policy makers running for reelection, or who wish to affect the election results , to use stabilization policy to produce booming economic conditions before elections.(page13)
政治经济在很多方面影响平衡政策而不是仅仅通过具有不同政治观点的政策制定者花在通货膨胀和失业上的代价，以及他们在试图改变经济形势时愿意承担的风险。还有所谓的政治景气循环，它是以对受经济条件影响的选举结果的观察为基础的。当经济状况改善，失业率下降时，现任总统就可能再次竞选。因此激励了再次竞选的政治决策者或想影响竞选结果的人，在竞选之前使用平衡政策来制造经济繁荣的景象。
10.order promising means making a commitment to the customer to ship or deliver an order.Order promise by operations management also
serves as its commitment to the partnership that marketing and operations should have.Speedy notice of order promise can provide salespeople with sound information for use in making any delivery arrangements.Timely notice also helps get more sales.In return , the sales force may be able to more closely gear selling activities toward operating capacity; that is , salespeople may push sales of items that require use of idle or slack operations capacity and ease off on items that would strain other capacity.(page46)
订单承诺的意思是向顾客做出装船或交付订单的承诺。经营管理中的订单承诺也作为对销售部门和管理部门应有的协作的承诺。订单承诺的迅速下达可以为销售人员提供用来作出任何交付安排的充分的信息。及时的通知还可以帮助提高销售额。作为回报，销售人员也许能够将经营能力与销售活动更紧密的配合，销售人员可能促成多销一些产品，因而需要使用闲置的生产能力，从而减轻另一些设备的压力。
11.push strategies : push strategies rely on a wide variety of in-channel methods to induce, motivate, coerce, or otherwise bring about alliances
and cooperative pushing efforts involving retailers, wholesalers, brokers, agents, and other middlemen to help ensure that the seller has his goods and services pushed to consumers.The thrust of the push strategy is toward middlemen, those who are in the distribution chain linking producers to final users.Push strategies include giving rebates cash payments, payments in kind, or other awards to wholesalers and retailers who push the suppliers, ware and services on to consumers.Such rewards are given to cooperating distributors who stock or prominently display the supplier’s goods or services.The cash payments can be in the form or prizes or goods to be sold by distributors who design award-winning store or window displays of supplier’s products.They are also awarded to distributors who give preferred shelf space, store space, or store location to the supplier’s products.Sometimes, the award takes the form of a “spiv” or extra commiion to distributors who “push” the supplier’s particular brand on to buyers.Beer companies notably often arrange extra payments to bartenders who push their brands to the drinking patrons.(page56)
推式策略依靠多种多样的“渠道内”方法去促使、激发甚至强制或者其他方法来形成联盟及合作，此联盟与合作包括零售商、批发商、经纪人、代理人及其他中间商，目的是确保销售者把其商品服务推给消费者。推式策略的推力作用在中间人身上，就是在分配链中联接生产者和最终使用者的人。推式策略包括给予那些把供应商的商品和服务卖给消费者的批发商和零售商现金回扣，或类似的偿付，或者其它的报酬。这些回报是给那些显著地存储或展示供应商产品或服务的合作分销商的。这种现金付款是以奖品或即将由分销商出售的商品为支付形式的，那些分销商设计了获得奖励的商品或者设计了用于展示供应商产品的橱窗。报酬还被授予给为供销商的产品提供优先的货架空间、存储空间或商店位置的分销商。有时候这种奖励会以小贩或多余佣金的形式发给那些把供应商的特殊品牌推销给购买者的分销商。啤酒公司经常安排多余的报酬给那些把他们的
品牌推销给啤酒老顾客的酒吧吧员。
12.pull strategies: the pull strategies are directed at final users and are aimed at motivating them to ask for specific products or services by
brand name or service identification.The pull strategies comprise four thrusts: * to discover new users or find new market segments of existing products or services; * to exploit existing products or services by finding new uses; * to increase product or service usage by motivating customers to use products or services more often or to use more of each during usage occasion; * to modify existing products or services so as to extend the product or service life cycle.The most prevalent among the pull strategies are quizzes, questionnaires, contests, or sweepstakes.These pull strategies account for over 50% of all sales campaigns.The most notable among them in the United States is the decades-old Pillsbury Bake Contest in which entrants’ cooking recipes are judges, in a nationwide television show, by a panel of experts” to determine winners of large cash prizes and other awards.Contests can also be won through supposed impartial judgment of best entries containing an answer to a quiz question such as “ I like Chinese Dynasty Wine because…(in 25 words or le).”(page56)
拉式策略针对的是最终消费者，目的在于由品牌名称或服务的识别激发对产品和服务的特殊要求。
引导策略包括四个有力措施：
1.发现现有产品和服务的新购买者或找到新的市场部分
2.通过发现它的新用途开发已存在商品和服务
3.增加产品或服务的使用通过激励消费者更过的使用产品或服务，或者在使用期内程度更深的使用。
4.改变已存在产品或服务来延长产品或服务的生命周期。
在拉策略中最流行的就是测验、问卷调查、比赛或者抽奖。这些策略占据了50%的销售活动。在美国其中最值得注意的是十年一次的，参加比赛的人通过烹饪方法评分的pillsbury bake contest，这是一个在全国范围内的电视节目，有一个专家组成的专门小组决定获得大量现金奖励和其它奖励的胜利者。比赛是通过公正的评判参加参赛者对测验问题的回答，而评选出优胜者，而问题诸如我喜欢中国的王朝葡萄酒„„
13.The use of debt makes sense only if management is reasonably convinced that operating return on aets in the future will exceed the
interest rate on debt.However, even where this is the anticipated outcome, it does not necearily follow that debt ought to be used.Management must make a judgment that the prospect of higher returns justifies running the risk that returns may turn out to be lower.If the future looks sufficiently bright, management may decide to “bet on the future” via increased use of debt.However, the financial markets are unlikely to place a higher current value on the firm’s securities simply because the gamble is being taken.Any immediate effect on firm value results only from tax benefits, which, for reasons discued earlier, are likely to be modest.In short, the financial markets are likely to give credit for the use of debt only after the returns are all in.(page68)
债务的使用起作用，只有管理者合理的相信未来营运资产收益率将超过债务的利率。然而,即使这是预期的结果,这并不一定意味着债务应该被使用。管理者必须做出判断,高回报的前景证明运行的风险回报可能会更低。如果未来看起来足够明亮,管理层可能 决定通过增加使用“押注未来”债务。然而,金融市场仅仅为了孤注一掷，不太可能提高公司的当前的有价证券。而前面所讨论的， 仅从税收优惠对直接影响公司价值成果是温和的。简而言之,金融市场只有在有回报之后，才可能会给信贷使用债务。
14.intermediaries reduce financing costs by reducing the costs of matching up borrowers and lenders.The intermediary acts as “agent” for both
borrower and lenders in the tasks of gathering funds, credit analysis, record-keeping, and so on.Savers with small amount can lend much more cheaply and safely by going through a commercial bank than by lending directly to firms.A firm that wants to borrow a million dollars can do so much more cheaply by making one stop at a bank than by gathering small amount from hundreds or even thousands of individual savers.The net effect is that the entire proce of borrowing and lending is much le expensive than it would be if intermediaries did not exist.In technical jargon, financial intermediaries reduce “friction” due to costs of search, acquisition, and information-proceing.(page68)
中介降低融资成本，通过降低的成本匹配借款人和贷款人。中介充当“代理”,借款人和贷款人的任务收集资金,信贷分析、记录, 等等。储户与少量的放贷通过商业银行贷款比直接向公司借款更为廉价和安全。公司希望借一百万美元可以更便宜,暂停在银行借 款而通过从成百上千的个人储户收集少量资金。整个过程的净效应是如果中介不存在，借贷会更便宜。用技术术语说,金融中介机 构由于搜索采集、信息处理的成本而减少“摩擦”。
15.earlier, we defined trade credit as extended in connection with goods purchased for resale.It is this qualification—goods purchased for
resale—that distinguishes trade credit from other related forms.Machinery and equipment, for example, may be purchased on credit by means of an installment purchase contract of some sort.But if the equipment is used by the firm in its production proce rather than resold to others, then the financing usually in not called “trade credit”.Credit extended in connection with goods purchased for resale by a retailer or wholesaler, or raw materials used by a manufacturer in producing its products, is called “trade credit”.Thus, we exclude also consumer credit, which is credit extended to individuals for purchase of goods for ultimate use rather than for resale.(page72)
早期，我们定义了商业信用作为信用与购买商品转售连接的扩展，它是这个资格——=购买商品转售——，贸易信贷与相关的其他形式区分开来。例如，机械设备，可以赊购的某种类型的分期付款合同的方式，但如果设备在其生产过程中的公司而不是转售给他人使用，那么融资通常不叫“贸易信贷，信用与购买的零售商或批发商转售货物连接扩展，或使用的原材料是由一个制造商生产的产品，被称为“商业信用”，因此，我们排除了消费信贷，这是信贷扩展到最终使用而非为销售货物的购买人。
16.the extent to which trade credit is used as a source of funds varies widely among firms.In general, manufacturers, retailers, and wholesalers
make extensive use of trade credit.Service firms purchase le and therefore rely le on trade credit, there is considerable variation also with respect to firm size; small firms generally use trade credit more extensively than large firms.When monetary policy is tight and credit is difficult to obtain sufficient funds through normal channels may obtain financing indirectly from large suppliers by “stretching” their payment periods and expanding accounts payable.Large firms often are willing to finance their smaller customers in this manner in order to preserve their markets.(page72)
在何种程度上的贸易信贷作为资金来源之间的差别很大的公司。在一般情况下，制造商，零售商和批发商，使贸易信贷的广泛使用，服务企业购买更少，因此较少依赖贸易信贷。相当大的变化，也与企业规模存在；小企业一般采用信用交易更广泛比大公司。当货币政策从紧的信用是很难获得的，小公司往往会增加其对贸易信贷的依赖。大公司往往有更好的金融市场和更多的协商权相对于商业银行和其他中介机构比小公司。在资金紧张的时期，小企业无法通过正常渠道获得足够的资金可以获得间接融资的大型供应商的“拉伸”他们的付款期限和扩大应付账款。大公司往往愿意资助他们的小客户以这种方式来保护他们的市场。
17.OBM is the application of principles of behavioral psychology and the methodologies of behavior modification/applied behavior analysis,
to the study and control of individual or group behavior within organizational settings.(Frederiksen and Lovett, 1980, p.796)(page79) 组织行为管理是应用行为心理学的原则以及行为变动分析或应用行为分析的方法，以研究和控制组织内定的个体或群体行为。
18.a final important characteristic of OBM is the methodology employed.Methodology refers to the techniques used for aeing and
analyzing behavior.The methodology used in OBM differs from that traditionally used to study individuals or groups in organizations in two important respects.First, there is the onging and direct observation of behavior as it occurs in the organization.Rather than focusing on what people tell you about how they act or feel, OBM actually looks at what they do.This doesn’t mean that an individual is never asked about feelings or perceptions, but rather that actual accomplishments are more important than internal feelings.This focus is onging: rather than basing aements on one-time surveys, collecting repeated observations over time becomes important.In other words, there are repeated measurements of what people are actually doing over time rather than a one-time aement of how they feel about what they are doing.A second important characteristic of the methodology is the use of within-group comparisons of performance.What this means is that a single individuals are observed over time as the conditions are changed.Employees’ current performance is compared to the baseline of their past performances as programs are introduced or other conditions changed.This contrasts with the traditional approach of comparing different groups of individuals.It forces one to look for practical significance rather than statistical significance as the criteria for improvement.This is an important consideration, since sometimes a statistically significant change in behavior may be of little or no practical significance to the organization.There are many variations on this within-group methodology that will be covered later in this volume.(page81)
自有品牌的最后一个重要的特点是所采用的方法。方法论是指技术用于评估和分析的行为。用OBM的方法不同于传统上用于研究中的两个重要方面的组织中的个人或团体。首先，有持续的观察的行为，它发生在组织和直接。而不是专注于什么人告诉你关于他们的行动或感觉，OBM实际上看他们做了什么。这并不意味着一个人是没有问我的感受或看法，而是实际的成就比内部的感情更重要，这是正在进行的；而不是基于一次性调查评估，收集重复观测随着时间的推移变得很重要。换句话说，有重复测量随着时间的推移，人们正在做什么而不是一次性的评价如何，他们觉得他们做的事情。该方法的第二个重要的特征是使用在性能组比较，这意味着，随着时间的推移观察为条件的改变是一个单一的个人或团体。员工目前的绩效进行比较的基线为自己过去的表现进行了程序或其他条件的改变。与此相反，不同群体的个人比较传统的方法。它迫使人们寻找现实意义而不是统计意义的改进的标准。这是一个重要的考虑因素，因为有时行为的统计上的显着变化可能很少或没有实际意义的组织。有许多变异——这在小组的方法，将覆盖在这卷后
19.profitability is the mainstay goal of a busine organization.No matter how it is measured or defined, profit over the long term is the
clearest indication of a firm’s ability to satisfy the principal claims and desires of employees and stock holders.The key phrase in the sentence is “over the long term”.Obviously, basing decisions on a short-term concern for profitability would lead to a strategic myopia.A firm might overlook the enduring concerns of customers, suppliers, creditors, ecologists, and regulatory agents.In the short term the results may produce profit, but over time the financial consequences are likely to be detrimental.(page116)
盈利能力是一个企业组织的主要目标。不管它是如何测量或定义的，长期的利润是企业的能力，以满足主债权、员工和股东的欲望的最明显的迹象。句中的关键词是“长期的”。显然，以决定在短——盈利能力的长期的关注会导致战略近视。一个公司可能忽略的客户，供应商，债权人，生态学家的持续关注，与监管机构。在短期内，结果可能产生的利润，但随着时间的推移，财务后果可能是有害的。
20.Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Nations (1776) is often given credit for starting the industrial revolution.Adam Smith believed that
selfishne, in an ethical sense, is not highly rated.However in an economic sense, if we encourage individuals to believe that their own hard work would provide direct economic rewards to them, this new “release” of human energy would set in motion economic growth.First, self-interest, freely expreed, would jump-start the economy.Secondly, the gain falling to the hard-working individual could not be fully captured by this economic man.This is because in the quest to build personal wealth, one needs others.Inevitably and automatically, he reasoned, an “invisible hand” aures that the reach of the individual would produce benefits, even if unintended—for all others.Two concepts: the economic man (interested largely in himself) and the invisible hand became the twin pillars of capitalist or free market ideology.(page126)
亚当史密斯曾在许多国家大加赞赏工业革命。亚当史密斯认为，自私在道德范畴里是不为人称道的品性；但在经济方面，如果我们向个体鼓吹，使他们相信个人的辛勤工作能产生直接的经济回报，这将促使他们释放更大个人能量从而促进经济增长。首先，得到自由表达的利己心理能够推动经济的发展。其次，产生经济效益的个人并不能获得自己辛勤劳动所产生的所有价值。这是因为在追求个人财富的过程中，一个人需要其他人的帮助。不可避免，一只“无形的手”促使个体为周围创造财富，即使并非本意。两个概念：产生经济效益的个人和无形的手联合起来，成为资本主义或自由市场理论的支撑。
