Lecture 1
The Literature of the Colonial America and
of Reason and Revolution Ⅰ Teaching Content Literature of the Colonial America; Literature of Reason and Revolution Ⅱ Time Allotment 2 periods Ⅲ Teaching Objectives and Requirements
1 Make the students know clear about American Puritanism and its influence on American Literature.
2 Help the students to know about the main literary form, content and theme in Colonial America and the representative writers of this period.
3 Help the students know about the American history of Independence War and the representatives in the period of Reason and Revolution, especially their influence on American Literature.4 Make the students have a good understanding of Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin.
5 Make sure the students understand clearly about Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography and its influence on the latter Americans.
Ⅳ Key Points and Difficult Points in Teaching 1 American Puritanism
2 Jonathan Edwards 3 Benjamin Franklin 4 Autobiography
Ⅴ Teaching Methods and Means
Lecture; Discuion; Multi-media Ⅵ Teaching Proce 1 Literature of the Colonial America (1607-1765) 1.1 Historical Background ● In 1492, Christopher Columbus found the new continent called America.● There were many immigrants: Spanish (they built the first town on the new continent); Dutch (they built New York city at the beginning stage); French (today still lots of people’s mother tongue is French in North America); English (they first settled in Jamestown and Virginia in 1607) ● In1620, the famous ―May Flower‖ shipped 102 Puritans to Plymouth.
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(Q: transportation is not convenient, why some many immigrants left their hometown and came to such a remote place as America?) (A: Economic reasons: to seek fortune; Religious reasons: reformation and religious conflicts in Europe, persecution of Protestants, to seek a paradise of their own) 1.2 Puritan Thought ● Puritans=Calvinists ◆ Puritans believed most doctrines preached by John Calvin, a theologian, so they were also called Calvinists.◆ Puritans wanted to ―purify the church‖ to its original state, because they thought the church was corrupted and had too many rituals.◆ To be a Puritan: taking religion as the most important thing; living for glorifying God; believing predestination（命运天定）, original sin（原罪，人生下来就是有罪的，因为人类的祖先亚当和夏娃是有罪的）, total depravity（人类是完全堕落的，所以人要处处小心自己的行为，要尽可能做到最好以取悦上帝）, limited atonement（有限救赎，只有被上帝选中的人才能得到上帝的拯救）
◆ Life style of Puritans: pious, austere of taste, diligent and thrift, rigid sense of morality, self-reliant (John Milton is a typical Puritan.) ● American Puritan ◆ On the one hand, American Puritans were all idealist as their European brothers.They came to the new continent with the dream that they would built the new land to an Eden on earth.◆ On the other hand, American Puritans were more practical maybe because of the severe conditions they faced.
● American Puritanism（清教主义）
◆
Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans.The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church, who came into existence in the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James I.The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them Puritans.They came to America out of various reasons, but it should be remembered that they were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles.
◆ As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purify their religious beliefs and practices.They felt that the Church of England was too close to the Church of Rome in doctrine form of worship, and organization of authority.
◆ The American Puritans, like their brothers back in England, were idealists, believing that the church should be restored to complete ―purity‖.They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God.But in the grim struggle for survival that followed immediately after their arrival in America, they became more and more practical, as indeed they had to be.◆ Puritans’ lives were extremely disciplined and hard.Puritans tended to suspect joy and laughter as symptoms of sin: a Puritan woman was once
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threatened with banishment for smiling in church.They drove out of their settlements all those opinions that seemed dangerous to them, and history has criticized their actions.Yet in the persecution of what they considered error, the Puritans were no worse than many other movements in history.As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind.
◆ American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature.It had become, to some extent, so much a state of mind, so much a part of the national cultural atmosphere, rather than a set of tenets.● Influence of American Puritanism on literature ◆ Basis of American literature: the dream of building an Eden of Garden on earth (Early American literature were mainly optimistic because they believed that God sent them to the new continent to fulfill the sacred task so they would overcome all the difficulties they met at last.Gradually Americans found that their dreams would not be succeful, so lots of peimistic literary works were produced.) ◆ Symbolism(象征主义): lots of American writers liked to employ symbolism in their works.(typical way of Puritans who thought that all the simple objects existing in the world connoted deep meaning.) Symbolism means using symbols in literary works.The symbol means something represents or stands for abstract deep meaning.◆ Style: simple, fresh and direct (just as the style of the Authorized Version of Holy Bible) 1.3 Colonial Literature ● General features ◆ Humble origins: diaries, histories, letters etc.◆ In content: serving either God or colonial expansion or both ◆ In form: imitating English literary traditions ● Captain John Smith: the first American Writer, A Description of New England (P16) ● William Bradford: The History of Plymouth Plantation (P16-17) ● John Winthrop: The History of New England, A Model of Christian Charity
● Anne Bradstreet: first American woman poet; a Puritan poet; once called ―Tenth Muse‖; her first collection of poems, ―The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America‖ not containing any of her best known poems was the first book written by a woman to be published in the United States; her poems mainly about religious experience, family life and early settlers’ lives; her work also serves as a document of the struggles of a Puritan wife against the hardships of New England colonial life, and in some way is a testament to plight of the women of the age; her most famous poems—‖Contemplations‖ (P17)
● Edward Taylor: the best of the puritan poets; a meditative poet; most of his work treated religious themes, with poems based directly on the Psalms
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● Roger Williams: one of the greatest Puritan dienters; begins with the history of religious toleration in America, and the history of the separation of church and state.
2 Literature of Reason and Revolution (1765-End of 18th C) 2.1 Historical Background ● American Revolution (Strict rules made by English government prevented the economic development of the colonies.It was unfair.So American Independence War broke.) ◆ 1775, Lexington, beginning of the Independence War ◆ June 4th, 1776, Thomas Jefferson, Declaration of Independence ◆ 1778, alliance with France, turning point for American army ◆ 1778, English army surrendered ◆ 1783, formal recognition from Britain government ● Enlightenment (启蒙运动) (Review English Literature, 18th century, Addison, Steele and Pope, Claicism) ◆
Originated in Europe in the 17th century ◆
Resources: Newton’s theory; deism（自然神教派，课本P28，宗教与启蒙精神相结合的产物）; French philosophy (Roueau, Voltaire) ◆
Basic principles: streing education; streing Reason (Order) (The age has been called Age of Reason.); employing Reason to reconsider the traditions and social realities; concerns for civil rights, such as equality and social justice ◆
Significance: accelerating social progre; freeing people from the limitations set by prevailing Puritanism; making spiritual preparation for American Revolution ◆
Representatives: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson etc.◆
Influence on literature In form: imitating English claical（古典主义）writers In content: utilitarian tendency (for political or educational purpose) 2.2 Representatives in the period of Reason and Revolution 2.2.1 Jonathan Edwards (1703—1758) (last important figure in Puritan tradition) (In most course books, Jonathan Edwards is not included in the period of Reason Revolution and is put to the Colonial Period.However, Philip Freneau should be included in this period.Maybe for the sake of comparing Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin, the author of the course book put them together.) ● Life ◆ Born in a very religious New England family ◆ Graduated from Yale ◆ Worked as a minister and was an important figure in ―Great Awakening‖ (a serious of religious revivals which occurred in the 1730s and 1740s on North America continent) ◆ Dismied from his position because of fierce religious controversy at that time ◆ Lived and meditated in solitude; wrote some books (P29)
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● Analysis ◆ Influenced by the new ideas of Enlightenment, such as empiricism ◆ Still a pious Puritan ◆ His sense of God’s overwhelming presence in nature and in soul anticipated the Transcendentalism.(P32) ◆ First modern American and the country’s last medieval man 2.2.3 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) ● Life—Jack of all trades ◆ Born in a poor candle maker’s family in Boston ◆ No regular education ◆ Became an apprentice of a printer when he was 12 ◆ An editor of a newspaper and published lots of eays when he was 16 ◆ Went to Philadelphia when he was 17 ◆ A succeful printer and publisher ◆ Retired when he was 42 ◆ A scientist with lots of inventions and a famous experiment (kite, electricity, thunderstorm) ◆ A famous statesman (the only American who once signed all the four documents that created the new country) (P33) ◆ An example who made American Dream come true ● Literary works ◆ Poor Richard’s Almanac《穷查理的年历》
Modeled on farmers’ annual calendar; kept publishing for many years; includes many claical sayings, such as ―A penny saved is a penny earned.‖ (P34)
◆
The Autobiography—first of its kind in literature Writing when he was 65 An introduction of his life to his own son Including four parts written in different time Puritanism’s influence, such as self-examination and self-improvement (timetable, thirteen virtues, life style) Enlightenment spirits (man is basically good and free by nature, endowed by god with certain inalienable rights of liberty and the pursuit of happine; virtues includes ―order‖)
Style: simple, clear in order, direct and concise (―Nothing should be expreed in two words that can as well be expreed in one.‖) (Puritanism’s influence)
Popular, still well-read today, his values and style influenced lots of Americans 2.2.4 Other Representatives ● Thomas Paine (1737-1809): ◆
with his natural gift for pamphleteering and rebellion ◆
His chief contribution was a series of 16 pamphlets entitled American Crisis
and signed ―Common Sense‖.
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◆
In Common Sense he boldly advocated a ―Declaration for Independence‖.● Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826): ◆
His thought and personality have influenced his countrymen more deeply, and remained effectively alive, than those of any other American ◆
For him, government, a neceary evil, found sanction only in the common consent of a social contract, its purpose was the benefit of the individual, not his exploitation; it must provide freedom of speech, thought, aociation, pre, worship, education, and enterprise (a concept of democracy ◆
Declaration of Independence
● Philip Freneau (1752-1832) ◆ He is the most important poet in the 18th century.◆ He was entitled ―Father of American Poetry‖.◆ He was called ―The poet of the Revolution‖
◆ He was born in New York and graduated from Princeton University.◆ He wrote lots of poems supporting American Revolution and human liberty.◆ He was the most notable representative of dawning American nationalism in literature.◆ His poems presented Romantic spirits but his form and taste were mainly influenced by Claicism.◆ Most famous poems: ―The Wild Honey Suckle‖ and ―The Indian Burying Ground‖
◆ Analyze and discu the theme, rhyme scheme and some difficult dictions in ―The Wild Honey Suckle‖.
Ⅶ Reflection Questions and Aignments Reflection Questions 1 How did Franklin and his writings help the formation of the American Dream?
2 What figures of speech are used in ―The Declaration of Independence‖?
3 Analyze and discu the theme, rhyme scheme and some difficult dictions in ―The Wild Honey Suckle‖.Aignments 1 Discu the influence of Puritanism in American literature, with emphasis on the elements of Puritan thought in the works of the colonial writers.2 Compare Jonathan Edwards and Benjamin Franklin.
Lecture 2 American Romanticism and New England Literature: Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper Ⅰ Teaching Content
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American Romanticism; Washington Irving; James Fenimore Cooper Ⅱ Time Allotment 2 periods Ⅲ Teaching Objectives and Requirements
1 Make the students know clear about American Romanticism and its difference from European and British Romanticism.
2 Help the students to know about the main literary form, content and theme in American Romantic Period.
3 Help the students know about the early two romantic writers, Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper, especially their contributions to American Literature.4 Make the students have a general idea about Irving’s short story ―The Legend of Sleepy Hollow‖ and have a good understanding of Irving’s short story ―Rip Van Winkle‖.
5 Make sure the students understand clearly about James Fenimore Cooper’s ―Leather stocking Tales‖
Ⅳ Key Points and Difficult Points in Teaching 1 American Romanticism
2 Washington Irving
3 James Fenimore Cooper 4 ―Rip Van Winkle‖
Ⅴ Teaching Methods and Means
Lecture; Discuion; Multi-media Ⅵ Teaching Proce 1 American Romanticism 1.1 General Introduction (Review Romanticism in British literature) ● Time: from the end of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Civil War ● Reasons (Why American Romanticism emerged?) ◆ Fast development of the new nation (Historically: the time of westward expansion; Economically: industrialization, flood of immigrants, pioneers pushing the frontier further west—economic boom; Politically: democracy and political equality—the ideals of the new nation) —a promising new land with prevailed optimistic moods ◆ Development of journalism (Some influential periodicals appeared, such as The Atlantic Monthly.They need more literary productions.) ◆ Foreign influences (Review history of English literature.)(from the 18th century claicism to sentimentalism to Pre-Romanticism to Romanticism
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which can be divided into paive group and active group) (most influential British writers to American Romanticists-Walter Scott) ● General features of Romanticism ◆ Streing emotion rather than reason ◆ Streing freedom and individuality ◆ Streing idealism rather than materialism ◆ Writing about nature, medieval legends and with supernatural elements 1.2 Features of American Romanticism (P43-44) ● Imitative
◆ against the literary forms and ideas of claicism, developing some relatively new forms of fiction and or poetry, emphasizing upon the imaginative and emotional qualities of literature, a liking for the picturesque, the exotic, the sensuous, the sensational, and the supernatural (P41) ● Independent
◆ peculiar American experience (landscape, pioneering to the West, Indian
civilization, new nation’s democracy and dreams) (P41-42)
◆ Puritan heritage (more moralizing, edifying more than mere entertainment) (careful about love and sex.example: Scarlet Letter) (P42) ◆ American national consciousne—the sense of miion 1.3 Two periods and representatives ● 1770s to 1830s—Early period ◆ Representatives: Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper and New England poet ◆ Two famous poets: William Cullen Bryant (first distinctive American lyric poet; writing about nature, religion and life; famous poems―A Psalm of Life‖)
● 1830s to 1860s—Late period ◆ Flowering of American literature ◆ Representatives: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, Edgar Allan Poe etc.1.4 Significance of American Romanticism
Creative period of a native American culture and literature 2 Washington Irving (17831851) ● Life story ◆ born in a rich family ◆ attended Yale but expelled ◆ five years at sea ◆ inherited fortune then a comfortable life ◆ wrote lots of novels because he one day was disgusted by one novel ● Major works ◆ ―Leather stocking Tales‖ (a series of five novels about the frontier life): The
Pioneers, The Prairie, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Deerslayer
◆ Central character: Natty Bumppo (several names for same character: Hawk-eye, the Pathfinder, the Deer slayer, Leather stocking) (a typical frontier man: honest, simple, innocent, generous) (represents brotherhood of man, nature and freedom) ◆ Theme: modern civilization advancing on the wilderne and the contradiction between them ● Features ◆.Good at inventing plots (Cooper had never been to the frontier area personally.) ◆ Style: powerful, yet clumsy and dreadful ◆ Wooden Characters
◆ Use of dialect, but not authentic (criticized by Mark Twain)
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● Contributions ◆ Finding ―the West‖ and ―the frontier life‖ as materials for literary works ◆ Introducing Western tradition into American literature Ⅶ Reflection Questions and Aignments Reflection Questions American Romanticism grew as a result of a combination of internal and external factors at work then.Discu.Aignments 1 Explain Washington Irving’s significance in American literary history.
2 Read Rip Van Winkle or The Last of the Mohicans and make comments on one of the aspects in either work.
Lecture 3 American Romanticism and New England Literature: Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Ⅰ Teaching Content New England Transcendentalism; Ralph Waldo Emerson; J Henry David Thoreau Ⅱ Time Allotment 2 periods Ⅲ Teaching Objectives and Requirements
1 Make the students know clear about New England Transcendentalism 2 Make the students have a good understanding of Ralph Waldo Emerson and the excerpt from his ―Self-Reliance‖
3 Make sure the students understand clearly about Henry David Thoreau
Ⅳ Key Points and Difficult Points in Teaching 1 New England Transcendentalism
2 Ralph Waldo Emerson 3 ―Self-Reliance‖
4 Henry David Thoreau Ⅴ Teaching Methods and Means
Lecture; Discuion; Multi-media Ⅵ Teaching Proce 1 New England Transcendentalism
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(a special kind of philosophy appeared in the 1830s in US) (quite influential) 1.1 Resources ● Puritan heritage ◆ At the end of the 18th century people gradually felt boring about the strict Calvinism.At the same time with the development of science and technology, Americans suspected the old religion.Thus, Unitarianism（唯一神教）—a religious term (belief in the unity of God, not the Trinity of God) appeared.It was a developed school from the Calvinism.Its principles include the fatherhood of God, the brotherhood of men, the leadership of Jesus (which ignores Jesus’ divinity), salvation by character, and ―continual progre of mankind‖ rather than old religion’s ―man’s total depravity‖.It was an obvious improvement on Calvinism that never accepted the prospect of man’s perfectibility.It influenced Emerson.(P59)
◆ Emerson once was a preacher of Unitarianism, but he thought there were too many rituals in this religious school.Then he resigned from the position and sought a way for people to worship more freely.
◆ Emerson also believed in individuality and the dream of making a Garden of Eden on earth held by old generation Puritans.◆ Emerson inherited the ideas of inward communication with God and the divine symbolism of nature from Jonathan Edwards.
● Foreign influence ◆ German Philosophy, especially Kant（康德）, a famous German philosopher ◆ Ancient Indian and Chinese works, such as Confucius and Mencius 1.2 Features (P57) ● Emphasis on Spirit (Oversoul) (超灵)（爱默生在超验主义里强调的超灵相当于过去宗教里上帝的这个角色，在超验主义里超灵是无形的，人生活的世界里所有的一切都来自超灵，超灵在人生活的世界里也无所不在。） against ―world is made of matter‖;
against ―neglecting of spiritual life in capitalist world‖ ● Emphasis on individuals Old Puritan views: self-reliance and self-improvement Through communication with Oversoul, human being can be divine.against ―total depravity‖ in Old Puritan doctrines against dehumanization of capitalist world ● Taking nature as the symbol of the Spirit (Oversoul) encouraging people to find goodne and beauty from nature against materialism in the society and the actions which broke the harmony between human and nature only for profits ● Brotherhood of man (equal and liberty) interested in social reforms; endeavor to create an ideal society; against ―everything for money‖ in the capitalist world 1.3 Significance
● influenced a large group of writers ● summit of American Romanticism
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● marked the independence of American literature 2 Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 – 1882) 2.1 Life
● born in a clergyman’s family in New England ● graduated from Harvard ● a Unitarian minister ● abandoned Unitarianism and went to Europe searching for truth ● founded a Transcendentalists’ Club and published a journal, the Dial
● traveled and gave lectures; quite influential 2.2 Major works
● Nature ( a book which declared the birth of Transcendentalism), establishing
Emerson as the most eloquent spokesman of New England Transcendentalism ● Some other eays preaching his thoughts: Eays: First Series, including The ―Oversoul‖, ―Self-reliance‖ and ―The American Scholar‖ (American’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence); Eays: Second Series, including ―The Poet‖ and ―Experience‖ 2.3 Aesthetics and significance ● Aesthetics ◆In Emerson’s opinion, poets should function as preachers who gave
directions to the ma.◆ True poetry should serve as a moral purification.◆ The argument (or his thought or experience) should decide the form of the poem instead of traditional techniques.◆ The poets should expre his thought in symbols.◆ Poets should use words for their pictorial and imaginative meaning.◆ As to theme, Emerson called upon American authors to writer about peculiar American matters.● Significance Emerson’s aesthetics brought about a revolution in American literature in general and in American poetry in particular.It marked the birth of true American poetry and true American poets such as Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson.● Limitation His reputation fell in the 20th century because he firmly believed human and human society could be better.It seemed that he had no sense of evil and too optimistic about human nature and the society.Somebody once called this kind of optimism ―Transcendental folly‖.
( 爱默生的散文富于哲理，多格言警句，在中国有多种译文。中国著名的女作家张爱玲曾经翻译过爱默生的散文，目前她的译本已由三联书店出版。) 2.4 Nature and Self-reliance
● Nature
◆ Published anonymously in 1836, the eay contains an introduction and eight brief Chapters, which discu the love of nature, the uses of nature, the idealist philosophy in relation to nature, evidences of spirit in the material universe, and the potential expansion of human souls and words that will
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result from a general return to direct, immediate contact with the natural environment.
◆ In the eay Emerson clearly exprees the main principles of his Transcendentalist pursuit and his love for nature.In expreing his belief in the mystical ―unity of Nature,‖ Emerson develops his concept of the ―Over-soul‖ ―Universal Mind.‖ This eay has become so important that most people consider it an unofficial manifesto for the ―Transcendental Club.‖
● Self-reliance (Selected Readings, P20-24)
◆ The Theme is ―Be yourself.Trust your own inner voice.‖ Emerson repeats that theme throughout the eay in different ways.For example, he urges his readers to retain the outspokenne of a small child who freely speaks his mind–because he has not yet been corrupted by adults who tell him to do otherwise.He also urges readers to avoid envying or imitating others viewed as models of perfection; instead, he says, readers should take pride in their own unique individuality and never be afraid to expre their own original ideas.In addition, he says, they should refuse to conform to the ways of the popular culture and its shallow ideals; rather they should live up to their own ideals–even if doing so reaps them criticism and denunciation.◆ In this eay, Emerson uses first-, second-, and third-person point of view.◆ Among the most notable characteristics of Emerson’s writing style are these: ▼ thorough development of his thesis through examples, repetition, and reinforcement;
▼ coinage of memorable statements of principle, or aphorisms;
▼ frequent references (allusions) to historical and literary figures, such as Socrates, Galileo, Copernicus, Napoleon, Shakespeare, Franklin, Dante, and Scipio (Roman general who defeated Hannibal), who embody qualities Emerson discues;
▼ frequent use of figurative language to make a point, such as ―An institution is the lengthened shadow of one man‖ (metaphor) and ―They who made England, Italy, or Greece venerable in the imagination did so by sticking fast where they were, like an axis of the earth‖ (simile).
3 Henry David Thoreau (1817- 1862) 3.1 Life
● Born in a common family in New England ● Graduated from Harvard, but only stayed at home and helped family busine ● A friend of Emerson ● Active in social life and had a strong sense of justice (Example: He once refused to pay a poll-tax of 2 dollars because he felt the tax was unfair, and thus he was jailed.And later he wrote an eay named ―Civil Disobedience‖ which advocated paive resistance to unjust laws and influenced Gandhi in India.甘地的非暴力不合作运动) ● not succeful as a writer and lived in obscurity all his life 3.2 Works
● A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers
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● Walden（《瓦尔登湖》）(description of his life near the pond called Walden belonging to Emerson; the author lived there for nearly two years with only an axe at the beginning) (This book was a failure in his own time but became very popular in the 20th century.) Walden presented Thoreau’s unusual interests in nature and showed his individualism which inherited from American Puritanism.The book described the author’s extremely simple life and regeneration he experienced when he lived near the Walden pond.Comparing with Emerson who was a great thinker, Thoreau was a great experimentalist who put Emerson’s Transcendental doctrines into practice in the actual life.
( 《瓦尔登湖》在二十世纪已经成为了一本美国文学中的经典著作，在中国有多个译本，其中比较常见的一个译本由徐迟翻译，在中国非常流行。) ( 《瓦尔登湖》中的名剧：‖我可以用28.12元建立一个家，0.27元过一周的生活。每年我用6个星期赚一年的生活费，剩余的46个星期做自己想做的事。‖ 对于在20世纪的繁忙的现代社会中奔波的人，《瓦尔登湖》中记述的作者亲近自然的简单生活自然别有一番魅力，它就像现代人的一个梦想，这也是为什么此书在20世纪非常流行的原因之一。
( 一位梭罗研究专家曾经说《瓦尔登湖》有5种读法：1，关于自然的书；2，关于自立更生，简单生活的书；3，对现代生活的批评；4，文学名著；5，神圣的书。) ( 梭罗在《瓦尔登湖》记述的生活方式很像中国古代的隐士，有兴趣的同学可以对他们进行一个比较。) Ⅶ Reflection Questions and Aignments Reflection Questions Compare Wordsworth and Emerson. Aignments 1 According to Ralph Waldo Emerson, how does nature delight, purify and ennoble man and compensate for his solitude? 2 Comment on Walden.
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