信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
微机发展简史中英文文献翻译
摘要：微型计算机已经成为当代社会不可缺少的工作用品之一，在微型计算机的帮助下，人类能够完成以前难以完成的复杂的运算，加快了科技的发展进程。本篇讲述了微型计算机的起源以及其发展，包括硬件与软件的发展已经整个微型计算机行业的发展过程。 关键字：微型计算机；发展进程
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
1最早时候的计算机
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
2计算机的发展
2.1小规模集成电路和小型机
很快，在一个硅片上可以放不止一个晶体管，由此集成电路诞生了。随着时间的推移，一个片子能够容纳的最大数量的晶体管或稍微少些的逻辑门和翻转门集成度达到了一个最大限度。由此出现了我们所知道7400系列微机。每个门电路或翻转电路是相互独立的并且有自己的引脚。他们可通过导线连接在一起，做成一个计算机或其他的东西。
这些芯片为制造一种新的计算机提供了可能。它被称为小型机。他比大型机稍逊，但功能强大，并且更能让人负担的起。一个商业部门或大学有能力拥有一台小型机而不是得到一台大型组织所需昂贵的大型机。
随着微机的开始流行并且功能的完善，世界急切获得它的计算能力但总是由于工业上不能规模供应和它可观的价格而受到挫折。微机的出现解决了这个局面。
计算消耗的下降并非起源与微机，它本来就应该是那个样子。这就是我在概要中提到的“通货膨胀”在计算机工业中走上了歧途之说。随着时间的推移，人们比他们付出的金钱得到的更多。
2.2硬件的研究
我所描述的时代对于从事计算机硬件研究的人们是令人惊奇的时代。7400系列的用户能够工作在逻辑门和开关级别并且芯片的集成度可靠性比单独晶体管高很多。大学或各地的研究者，可以充分发挥他们的想象力构造任何微机可以连接的数字设备。在剑桥大学实验室力，我们构造了CAP，一个有令人惊奇逻辑能力的微机。
7400在70年代中期还不断发展壮大，并且被宽带局域网的先驱组织Cambridge Ring所采用。令牌环设计研究的发表先于以太网。在这两种系统出现之前，人们大多满足于基于电报交换机的本地局域网。
令牌环网需要高可靠性，由于脉冲在令牌环中传递，他们必须不断的被放大并且再生。是7400的高可靠性给了我们勇气，使得我们着手Cambridge Ring.项目。
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
2.3更小晶体管的出现
集成度还在不断增加，这是通过缩小原始晶体管以致可以更容易放在一个片子上。进一步说，物理学的定律占在了制造商的一方。晶体管变的更快，更简单，更小。因此，同时导致了更高的集成度和速度。
这有个更明显的优势。芯片被放在硅片上，称为晶片。每一个晶片拥有很大数量的独立芯片，他们被同时加工然后分离。因为缩小以致在每块晶片上有了更多的芯片，所以每块芯片的价格下降了。
单元价格下降对于计算机工业是重要的，因为，如果最新的芯片性能和以前一样但价格更便宜，就没有理由继续提供老产品，至少不应该无限期提供。对于整个市场只需一种产品。
然而，详细计算各项消耗，随着芯片小到一定程度，为了继续保持产品的优势，移到一个更大的圆晶片上是十分必要的。尺寸的不断增加使的圆晶片不再是很小的东西了。最初，圆晶片直径上只有1到2英寸，到2000年已经达到了12英寸。起初，我不太明白，芯片的缩小导致了一系列的问题，工业上应该在制造更大的圆晶片上遇到更多的问题。现在，我明白了，单元消耗的减少在工业上和在一个芯片上增加电子晶体管的数量是同等重要的，并且，在风险中增加圆晶片厂的投资被证明是正确的。
集成度被特殊的尺寸所衡量，对于特定的技术，它是用在一块高密度芯片上导线间距离的一半来衡量的。目前，90纳米的晶片正在被建成。
2.4单片机
芯片每次的缩小，芯片数量将减少；并且芯片间的导线也随之减少。这导致了整体速度的下降，因为信号在各个芯片间的传输时间变长了。
渐渐地，芯片的收缩到只剩下处理器部分，缓存都被放在了一个单独的片子上。这使得工作站被建成拥有当代小型机一样的性能，结果搬倒了小型机绝对的基石。正如我们所知道的，这对于计算机工业和从事计算机事业的人产生了深远的影响
自从上述时代的开始，高密度CMOS硅芯片成为主导。随着芯片的缩小技术的发展，数百万的晶体管可以放在一个单独的片子上，相应的速度也成比例的增加。
为了得到额外的速度。处理器设计者开始对新的体系构架进行实验。一次成功的实验都预言了一种新的编程方式的分支的诞生。我对此取得的成功感到非常惊奇。它
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
导致了程序执行速度的增加并且其相应的框架。
同样令人惊奇的是，通过更高级的特性建立一种单片机是有可能的。例如，为IBM Model 91开发的新特性，现在在单片机上也出现了。
Murphy定律仍然在中止的状态。它不再适用于使用小规模集成芯片设计实验用的计算机，例如7400系列。想在电路级上做硬件研究的人们没有别的选择除了设计芯片并且找到实现它的办法。一段时间内，这样是可能的，但是并不容易。
不幸的是，制造芯片的花费有了戏剧性的增长，主要原因是制造芯片过程中电路印刷版制作成本的增加。因此，为制作芯片技术追加资金变的十分困难，这是当前引起人们关注的原因。
2.5半导体前景规划
对于以上提到的各个方面，在部分国际半导体工业部门的精诚合作下，广泛的研究与开发工作是可行的。
在以前美国反垄断法禁止这种行为。但是在1980年，该法律发生了很大变化。预竞争概念被引进了该法律。各个公司现在可以在预言竞争阶段展开合作，然后在规则允许的情况下继续开发各自的产品。
在半导体工业中，预竞争研究的管理机构是半导体工业协会。1972年作为美国国内的组织，1998年成为一个世界性的组织。任何一个研究组织都可加入该协会。
每两年，SIA修订一次ITRS(国际半导体科学规划)，并且逐年更新。1994年在
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
机制，而不是闭关锁国。这也包括大规模圆晶片取得进展的原因。
1995年前，我开始感觉到，如果达到了不可能使得晶体管体积更小的临界点时，将发生什么。怀着这样的疑惑，我访问了位于华盛顿的ARPA（美国国防部）指挥总部，在那，我看到1994年规划的复本。我恍然大悟，当圆晶片尺寸在2007年达到100纳米时，将出现严重的问题，在2010年达到70纳米时也如此。在随后的2004年的规划中，当圆晶片尺寸达到100纳米时，也做了相应的规划。不久半导体工业将发展到那一步。
从1994年的规划中我引用了以上的信息，还有就是一篇提交到IEE的题目为CMOS终结点的论文和在1996年２月８号的Computing上讨论的一些题目。
我现在的想法是，最终的结果是表示一个存在可用的电子数目从数千减少到数百。在这样的情况下，统计波动将成为问题。最后，电路或者不再工作，或者达到了速度的极限。事实上，物理限制将开始让他们感觉到不能突破电子最终的不足，原因是芯片上绝缘层越来越薄，以致量子理论中隧道效应引起了麻烦，导致了渗漏。
相对基础物理学，芯片制造者面对的问题要多出许多，尤其是电路印刷术遇到的困难。2001年更新2002年出版的规划中，陈述了这样一种情况，照目前的发展速度，如果在2005年前在关键技术领域没有取得大的突破的话，半导体业将停止不前。这是对“红色砖墙”最准确的描述。到目前为止是SIA遇到的最麻烦的问题。2003年的规划书强调了这一点，通过在许多地方加上了红色，指示在这些领域仍存在人们没有解决的制造方法问题。
到目前为止，可以很满意的报道，所遇到的问题到及时找到了解决之道。规划书是个非凡的文档，并且它坦白了以上提到的问题，并表示出了无限的信心。主要的见解反映出了这种信心并且有一个大致的期望，通过某种方式，圆晶体将变的更小，也许到45纳米或更小。
然而，花费将以很大的速率增长。也许将成为半导体停滞不前的最终原因。对于逐步增加的花费直到不能满足，这个精确的工业上达到一致意见的平衡点，依赖于经济的整体形势和半导体工业自身的财政状况。
最高级芯片的绝缘层厚度仅有５个原子的大小。除了找到更好的绝缘材料外，我们将寸步难行。对于此，我们没有任何办法。我们也不得不面对芯片的布线问题，线越来越细小了。还有散热问题和原子迁移问题。这些问题是相当基础性的。如果我们
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
不能制作导线和绝缘层，我们就不能制造一台计算机。不论在CMOS加工工艺上和半导体材料上取得多么大的进步。更别指望有什么新的工艺或材料可以使得半导体集成度每18个月翻一番的美好时光了。
我在上文中说到，圆晶体继续缩小直到45纳米或更小是个大致的期望。在我的头脑中，从某点上来说，我们所知道的继续缩小CMOS是不可行的，但工业上需要超越它。
2001年以来，规划书中有一部分陈述了非传统形式CMOS的新兴研究设备。一些精力旺盛的人和一些投机者的探索无疑给了我们一些有益的途径，并且规划书明确分辨出了这些进步，在那些我们曾经使用的传统CMOS方面。
2.6内存技术的进步
非传统的CMOS变革了存储器技术。直到现在，我们仍然依靠DRAM作为主要的存储体。不幸的是，随着芯片的缩小，只有芯片外围速度上的增长——处理器芯片和它相关的缓存速度每两年增加一倍。这就是存储器代沟并且是人们焦虑的根源。存储技术的一个可能突破是，使用一种非传统的CMOS管，在计算机整体性能上将导致一个很大的进步，将解决大存储器的需求，即缓存不能解决的问题。
也许这个，而不是外围电路达到基本处理器的速度将成为非传统CMOS.的最终角色。
2.7电子的不足
尽管目前为止，电子每表现出明显的不足，然而从长远看来，它最终会不能满足要求。也许这是我们开发非传统CMOS管的原因。在Cavendish实验室里，Haroon Amed已经作了很多有意义的工作，他们想通过一个单独电子或多或少的表现出0和1的区别。然而对于构造实用的计算机设备只取得了一点点进展。也许由于偶然的好运气，数十年后一台基于一个单独电子的计算机也许是可以实现的。
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
附：英文原文
Progre in Computers Prestige Lecture delivered to IEE, Cambridge, on 5 February 2004 Maurice Wilkes Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge
The first stored program computers began to work around 1950.The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in the summer of 1949.These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds.We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering and were confident that that experience would stand us in good stead.This proved true, although we had some new things to learn.The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly; what would cause a harmle flash on the screen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embara de riche.For example, we could use vacuum tube diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere.This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use.Those who have worked in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS.Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and we had to fight a number of major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right.I remember that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers’ ways of doing things were not our ways.A minor source of irritation was that all IEE published papers were expected to start with a lengthy statement of earlier practice, something difficult to do when there was no earlier practice Consolidation in the 1960s
By the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest.The number of computers in the world had increased and they were much more reliable than the very early ones .To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems.Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graphics was to come along.Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes.This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day.They had to forget what they knew about circuits and start again.It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly.
Soon it was found poible to put more than one transistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits.As time went on, a sufficient level of integration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of gates or flip flops.This led to a range of chips known as the 7400 series.The gates and flip flops were independent of one another and each had its own pins.They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a computer or anything else.These chips made a new kind of computer poible.It was called a minicomputer.It was something le that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable.Instead of having one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a busine or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more powerful.The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost.Minicomputers transformed the situation.The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer; it had always been that way.This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry ‘going the other way’.As time goes on people get more for their money, not le.
Research in Computer Hardware.
The time that I am describing was a wonderful one for research in computer hardware.The user of the 7400 series could work at the gate and flip-flop level and yet the overall level of integration was sufficient to give a degree of reliability far above that of discreet transistors.The researcher, in a university or elsewhere, could build any digital device that a fertile imagination could conjure up.In the Computer Laboratory we built the Cambridge CAP, a full-scale minicomputer with fancy capability logic.
The 7400 series was still going strong in the mid 1970s and was used for the Cambridge Ring, a pioneering wide-band local area network.Publication of the design study for the Ring came just before the announcement of the Ethernet.Until these two systems appeared, users had mostly been content with teletype-based local area networks.
Rings need high reliability because, as the pulses go repeatedly round the ring, they must be continually amplified and regenerated.It was the high reliability provided by the 7400 series of chips that gave us the courage needed to embark on the project for the Cambridge Ring.
The Relentle Drive towards Smaller Transistors
The scale of integration continued to increase.This was achieved by shrinking the original transistors so that more could be put on a chip.Moreover, the laws of physics were on the side of the manufacturers.The transistors also got faster, simply by getting smaller.It was therefore poible to have, at the same time, both high density and high speed.
There was a further advantage.Chips are made on discs of silicon, known as wafers.Each wafer has on it a large number of individual chips, which are proceed together and later separated.Since shrinkage makes it poible to get more chips on a wafer, the cost per chip goes down.
Falling unit cost was important to the industry because, if the latest chips are cheaper
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
to make as well as faster, there is no reason to go on offering the old ones, at least not indefinitely.There can thus be one product for the entire market.
However, detailed cost calculations showed that, in order to maintain this advantage as shrinkage proceeded beyond a certain point, it would be neceary to move to larger wafers.The increase in the size of wafers was no small matter.Originally, wafers were one or two inches in diameter, and by 2000 they were as much as twelve inches.At first, it puzzled me that, when shrinkage presented so many other problems, the industry should make things harder for itself by going to larger wafers.I now see that reducing unit cost was just as important to the industry as increasing the number of transistors on a chip, and that this justified the additional investment in foundries and the increased risk.
The degree of integration is measured by the feature size, which, for a given technology, is best defined as the half the distance between wires in the densest chips made in that technology.At the present time, production of 90 nm chips is still building up The single-chip computer
At each shrinkage the number of chips was reduced and there were fewer wires going from one chip to another.This led to an additional increment in overall speed, since the transmiion of signals from one chip to another takes a long time.
Eventually, shrinkage proceeded to the point at which the whole proceor except for the caches could be put on one chip.This enabled a workstation to be built that out-performed the fastest minicomputer of the day, and the result was to kill the minicomputer stone dead.As we all know, this had severe consequences for the computer industry and for the people working in it.
From the above time the high density CMOS silicon chip was Cock of the Roost.Shrinkage went on until millions of transistors could be put on a single chip and the speed went up in proportion.
Proceor designers began to experiment with new architectural features designed to give extra speed.One very succeful experiment concerned methods for predicting the way program branches would go.It was a surprise to me how succeful this was.It led to a significant speeding up of program execution and other forms of prediction followed Equally surprising is what it has been found poible to put on a single chip computer by way of advanced features.For example, features that had been developed for the IBM Model 91.the giant computer at the top of the System 360 range.are now to be found on microcomputers
Murphy’s Law remained in a state of suspension.No longer did it make sense to build experimental computers out of chips with a small scale of integration, such as that provided by the 7400 series.People who wanted to do hardware research at the circuit level had no option but to design chips and seek for ways to get them made.For a time, this was poible, if not easy
Unfortunately, there has since been a dramatic increase in the cost of making chips, mainly because of the increased cost of making masks for lithography, a photographic proce used in the manufacture of chips.It has, in consequence, again become very difficult to finance the making of research chips, and this is a currently cause for some concern.
The Semiconductor Road Map
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
The extensive research and development work underlying the above advances has been made poible by a remarkable cooperative effort on the part of the international semiconductor industry.At one time US monopoly laws would probably have made it illegal for US companies to participate in such an effort.However about 1980 significant and far reaching changes took place in the laws.The concept of pre-competitive research was introduced.Companies can now collaborate at the pre-competitive stage and later go on to develop products of their own in the regular competitive manner.
The agent by which the pre-competitive research in the semi-conductor industry is managed is known as the Semiconductor Industry Aociation (SIA).This has been active as a US organisation since 1992 and it became international in 1998.Membership is open to any organisation that can contribute to the research effort.
Every two years SIA produces a new version of a document known as the International Technological Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), with an update in the intermediate years.The first volume bearing the title ‘Roadmap’ was iued in 1994 but two reports, written in 1992 and distributed in 1993, are regarded as the true beginning of the series.
Succeive roadmaps aim at providing the best available industrial consensus on the way that the industry should move forward.They set out in great detail.over a 15 year horizon.the targets that must be achieved if the number of components on a chip is to be doubled every eighteen months.that is, if Moore’s law is to be maintained.-and if the cost per chip is to fall.In the case of some items, the way ahead is clear.In others, manufacturing problems are foreseen and solutions to them are known, although not yet fully worked out; these areas are coloured yellow in the tables.Areas for which problems are foreseen, but for which no manufacturable solutions are known, are coloured red.Red areas are referred to as Red Brick Walls.The targets set out in the Roadmaps have proved realistic as well as challenging, and the progre of the industry as a whole has followed the Roadmaps closely.This is a remarkable achievement and it may be said that the merits of cooperation and competition have been combined in an admirable manner.It is to be noted that the major strategic decisions affecting the progre of the industry have been taken at the pre-competitive level in relative openne, rather than behind closed doors.These include the progreion to larger wafers.
By 1995, I had begun to wonder exactly what would happen when the inevitable point was reached at which it became impoible to make transistors any smaller.My enquiries led me to visit ARPA headquarters in Washington DC, where I was given a copy of the recently produced Roadmap for 1994.This made it plain that serious problems would arise when a feature size of 100 nm was reached, an event projected to happen in 2007, with 70 nm following in 2010.The year for which the coming of 100 nm (or rather 90 nm) was projected was in later Roadmaps moved forward to 2004 and in the event the industry got there a little sooner.
I presented the above information from the 1994 Roadmap, along with such other information that I could obtain, in a lecture to the IEE in London, entitled The CMOS
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
end-point and related topics in Computing and delivered on 8 February 1996.The idea that I then had was that the end would be a direct consequence of the number of electrons available to represent a one being reduced from thousands to a few hundred.At this point statistical fluctuations would become troublesome, and thereafter the circuits would either fail to work, or if they did work would not be any faster.In fact the physical limitations that are now beginning to make themselves felt do not arise through shortage of electrons, but because the insulating layers on the chip have become so thin that leakage due to quantum mechanical tunnelling has become troublesome.
There are many problems facing the chip manufacturer other than those that arise from fundamental physics, especially problems with lithography.In an update to the 2001 Roadmap published in 2002, it was stated that the continuation of progre at present rate will be at risk as we approach 2005 when the roadmap projects that progre will stall without research break-throughs in most technical areas “.This was the most specific statement about the Red Brick Wall, that had so far come from the SIA and it was a strong one.The 2003 Roadmap reinforces this statement by showing many areas marked red, indicating the existence of problems for which no manufacturable solutions are known.
It is satisfactory to report that, so far, timely solutions have been found to all the problems encountered.The Roadmap is a remarkable document and, for all its frankne about the problems looming above, it radiates immense confidence.Prevailing opinion reflects that confidence and there is a general expectation that, by one means or another, shrinkage will continue, perhaps down to 45 nm or even le.
However, costs will rise steeply and at an increasing rate.It is cost that will ultimately be seen as the reason for calling a halt.The exact point at which an industrial consensus is reached that the escalating costs can no longer be met will depend on the general economic climate as well as on the financial strength of the semiconductor industry itself.。
Insulating layers in the most advanced chips are now approaching a thickne equal to that of 5 atoms.Beyond finding better insulating materials, and that cannot take us very far, there is nothing we can do about this.We may also expect to face problems with on-chip wiring as wire cro sections get smaller.These will concern heat diipation and atom migration.The above problems are very fundamental.If we cannot make wires and insulators, we cannot make a computer, whatever improvements there may be in the CMOS proce or improvements in semiconductor materials.It is no good hoping that some new proce or material might restart the merry-go-round of the density of transistors doubling every eighteen months.
I said above that there is a general expectation that shrinkage would continue by one means or another to 45 nm or even le.What I had in mind was that at some point further scaling of CMOS as we know it will become impracticable, and the industry will need to look beyond it.
Since 2001 the Roadmap has had a section entitled emerging research devices on non-conventional forms of CMOS and the like.Vigorous and opportunist exploitation of these poibilities will undoubtedly take us a useful way further along the road, but the Roadmap rightly distinguishes such progre from the traditional scaling of conventional CMOS that we have been used to.Advances in Memory Technology
信息与控制工程学院毕业设计（论文）英文翻译
Unconventional CMOS could revolutionalize memory technology.Up to now, we have relied on DRAMs for main memory.Unfortunately, these are only increasing in speed marginally as shrinkage continues, whereas proceor chips and their aociated cache memory continue to double in speed every two years.The result is a growing gap in speed between the proceor and the main memory.This is the memory gap and is a current source of anxiety.A breakthrough in memory technology, poibly using some form of unconventional CMOS, could lead to a major advance in overall performance on problems with large memory requirements, that is, problems which fail to fit into the cache.Perhaps this, rather than attaining marginally higher basis proceor speed will be the ultimate role for non-conventional CMOS.Shortage of Electrons
Although shortage of electrons has not so far appeared as an obvious limitation, in the long term it may become so.Perhaps this is where the exploitation of non-conventional CMOS will lead us.However, some interesting work has been done.notably by Haroon Amed and his team working in the Cavendish Laboratory.on the direct development of structures in which a single electron more or le makes the difference between a zero and a one.However very little progre has been made towards practical devices that could lead to the construction of a computer.Even with exceptionally good luck, many tens of years must inevitably elapse before a working computer based on single electron effects can be contemplated.
文章来源：IEEE的论文 剑桥大学，2004/2/5
