Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学 6.1 Syntax：definition 定义
Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rules governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。句法研究语言的句
子结构。 Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉 知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学 Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language.”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。它在语音学，音位学，语义学之外。
Grammar includes morphology and syntax.语法包括形态学和句法学。
1）Morphology studies the internal structures of words and word formation procees.形态学是语法的一部分，是研究词语的内部结构和构词过程的语言学分支学科。 2）Syntax is concerned with the relationships between words and phrases within a sentence.它研究句子中词和短句之间的关系。 句子用两种不同方式学习： Statically(静态的): we can describe the structures of sentences to illustrate the relationship among the elements of a sentence；我们可以描述句子结构之间的关系来说明句子的元素。 Dynamically（动态地）:we can study how sentences are generated by syntactic rules.我们可以学习生成的句子的语法规则。
6.3 syntagmatic, paradigmatic and hierarchical relations横组合、纵聚合和等级关系 Syntagmatic is a fundamental term in linguistics，to refer to the sequential characteristics of speech，seen as a string of constituents in linear order.The relationships between constituents (syntagms or syntagmas 组成成分)in a construction are generally called syntagmatic relations.横组合是语言学的基本术语，横组合关系指一个单位和同一序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或共现的所有成分间的关系。
Sets of syntagmatically related constituents are called structures.横组合关系的成分被称为结构。 Paradigmatic relations or aociative relations refers to the set of relations a linguistc unit has with other units in a specific context.聚合关系或关联关系是指语言单位和其他单位在特定
上下文间的关系。
Paradigmatic relations hold between an item and similar ones that can appear in the same position in a sequence.纵聚合关系指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系。 Paradigmatic relations refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.纵聚合关系指句子内外语言元素之间的关系。 Claes of paradigmatically related elements are called system, like “person system(人称系统)“case system”（格位系统）。 Syntactic categories(句法范畴) refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations（纵聚合关系）.They include lexical categories(词汇范畴) and non-lexical categories.Lexical categories: • 名词Noun(N): book, table.• 动词Verb(V); hit, tell • 形容词Adjective(Adj): good, bad • 副词Adverb (Adv): greatly • 限定词Determiner (Det): a, this, his, • 介词Preposition( P): on in • 连词conjunction( Conj); and if • 感叹词Interjection (Int): oh, ah Phrasal categories（短句范畴）: • 名词短语Noun phrase (NP): a book • 动词短语Verb phrase (VP): sing a song • 形容词短语Adjective phrase (AP): very good • 副词短语Adverb phrase (ADVP): very well, • 助动词短语Auxiliary phrase (AUX):tense model, tense perf • 介词短语Prepositional phrase (PP): in the room Hierarchical structure(层次结构) refer to the inner layering(内部层次关系) of sentences, that is, sentences consisting of phrases and phrases in turn are composed of words.Hierarchical structure can be analysed by IC analysis, labeled IC analysis, phrase markers and labeled bracketing.层次结构可用直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法来 分析。
6.4 IC Analysis, labeled IC Analysis, phrase markers, and labeled bracketing 直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法 IC Analysis is a kind of grammatical analysis，which refers to the major divisions that can be made within a syntactic construction，at any level.To put it in a simple way，we can divide the words of a sentence（or a morphemes of a word） into two groups, and then divide each group into sub-groups and so on, until the single words of the sentences（or single morphemes of the word）.直接成分分析是一种语法分析,它指的是可以组成句法结构的任何
级别的主要部分。用一个简单的方法,我们可以把一个句子的话(或一个单词的语素)分成两组,然后将每个小组再分成小组等等,直到剩简单的单词(或单语素的词)。 IC Analysis=immediate-constituent analysis（constituent analysis）
It was a major feature of Bloomfieldian Structuralist linguistics(布龙菲尔德结构主义语言学的主要特征) Immediate constituents直接成分
Ultimate constituents 最终成分（树型图底部的部分） Constituen成分: all the forms except the one at the top---the sentence itself One advantage of IC Analysis is to reveal the structural ambiguity(结构性歧义) Labeled IC Analysis（带标记的直接成分分析）: to label the grammatical categories of each constituents and the sentences.把语法类别的每个成分和句子标明。
As the IC Analysis is too redundant(重复的)and troublesome, the phrase markers(短语标记法)are advanced.Labeled bracketing(方括标记法)is also applied in representing（表示） the hierarchical structure （分层结构）of sentence.6.5 Constituency and Dependency成分关系、依存关系 Constituency(成分关系): It is to divide a sentence into a series of constituents which can be analysed into further constituents until no further division is poible.它是一个 句子划分为一系列可分析的成分一直分到不能再除去。
Constituents structure analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the different constituents at different structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic forms.成分结构分析是一个层次分析显示不同结构水平的不同的成分，基于语言形式的分布。
Dependency grammar(依存语法)is a type of formal grammar，developed by several linguists in the 1950s（in particular，the French linguist Lucien Tesniere）which establishes types of dependencies between the elements of a construction as a means of explaining grammatical relationships.(依存语法)是一种正式的语法,由几个语言学家在1950年代(特别是法国语言学家吕西安
Tesniere),建立了建筑中各元素的依存种类，作为一种解释语法关系的手段。 In a syntactic connection （句法联系）between two elements one is the governing element(支配因素) and the other is the dependent element(依存因素).When a governing element is dependent on another governing element, a complex hierarchical dependecy order results.在依存语法看来,在句子的每两个要素或成分之间,一个是支配要素/成分,另一个则是依存要素/成分。如果一个支配成分依存于另一个支配成分,则形成了一个复杂的等级依存顺序。 In a sentence, the absolute governor is the verb.每一个句子当中,绝对的支配者是动词。 6.6 TG Grammar(转换生成语法) 6.6.1表层结构和深层结构（ Surface structures and deep structures）
静态学习Static study of language deals with only surface structure(表层结构); 动态学习dynamic study of language deals with both surface structure and deep structure.Sentence generation(句子的生成)always starts with the deep structure and then transforms it into its surface structure.句子生成总是先从深层结构开始,然后把它转换为它的表面结构。 Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by the transformational rules.深层结
构是由短语结构规则产生的而表面结构是来源于他们的深层结构的转换规则。 The whole proce can be represented by: Phrase structure rules（PS rules） ↓ ↓ deep structures ↓ ↓ T-rules（transformational rules） ↓ ↓ surface structures Diffenrences:表面结构和深层结构的不同
1） Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences; while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.表面结构直接对应句子的线性排列;而深层结构对应于句子的有意义的分组。 2） Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.表面结构更具体而深层结构更抽象。
3） Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences 表面结构产生句子的形式而深层结构产生句子的含义
4） Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.表面结构可发 音的但深层结构不能
6.6.2 phrase structure rules 短语结构规则 • S→NP AUP VP He is working.• NP →(Det)(AP)N those old books • AP →{(AP)/(ADVP)}Adj very old • VP →V{(NP)(PP)(S)/(AP)(ADVP} • run fast, get to the school • PP →P NP in the box • AUX →Tense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog) • Tense →{present/past} was is • Modal →can,may,must,will,shall,could„ • Perf →have-EN (完成体) • Prog →be-ING (进行体) The constituents put in the parentheses are called optional constituents because they may be present or absent on the right side of the arrow.这个成分放在括号被称为可选成分,因为他
们可能会离开身外的右边的箭头。
And the constituents which must be present on the right side of the arrow are called compulsory constituents.必须出现在右边的箭头的成分被称为强制成分。 深层结构中动词词组要注意这两点：
1） the verbs in VP always take the base form and the inflectional endings of verbs are part of the auxiliary phrase在动词短语中的动词总是基础形式并且动词的屈折结尾部分是助动词短语的部分。
2） verbs in VP are main verbs while all the other helping verbs are part of AUX动词短语里的动词是主要动词而所有其他帮助动词是辅助词 6.6.3 transformational rules(转换规则) transformational rules are used to transform deep structures into surface structures, which involves a series of T-rules.The more T-rules are applied, the more concrete the structure becomes and the closer it is to its surface structure.转换规则用于转换成表面结构的深层结 构,其中涉及一系列转换规则。更多的转换规则应用，使更多的具体的结构变得越接近其表面结构。
deep structure ↓ by T-rules(1) modified structure (1) ↓ by T-rules(2) modified structure (2) ↓
„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„
by T-rules(n) surface structure Each T-rule performs one or two of the following three operations:1）rearranging the elements of the structure; 2）adding a new element to the structure;3）deleting an element from the structure.每个转换规则执行一个或两个以下三个操作:1)重新安排元素的结构;2)添
加一个新元素的结构;3)删除一个元素的结构。
Each transformational rule consists of two parts: 1）the structural description(SD); 2）structural change(SC).In the description of the deep structure, X,Y,Z can be used as the variables(变量) 每个转换规则由两部分组成:1)结构描述(SD);2)结构变化(SC)。在深层结构的描述,X,Y,Z 可以用作变量。
• T-Affix（词缀转换规则） • T-Paive(被动转换规则) • T-agent deletion（删除施事者转换规则） • T-negation（否定转换规则） • T-Do insertion（助动词do插入转换规则） • T-Yes or No question（一般疑问句转换规则） • T-Wh-word insertion（疑问词插入转换规则） • T-Reflexive（反身代词转换规则） • T-Imperative（祁使句转换规则）
• Of all the T-rules, T-Affix hopping is obligatory while others are optional.在所有的转换规则里，词汇转换规则是必要的，其他是选择性的
The ordering of transformational rules: 特别要注意的是，转换规则的顺序很重要： If the ordering is not followed, the transformation will produce ill-formed sentences or be blocked up.如果排序不对,转换会产生不规范的句子或被堵塞。
1) T-Reflexive must be applied before T-Imperative.2) T-Paive must be applied before T-Reflexive.3) T-Paive must be applied before T-Negation.4) T-Paive must be applied before T-Yes or No question.5) T-Affix is always finally applied.6) T-Agent-deletion is always applied immediately after T-Paive.7) T-Do-insertion is always applied immediately after T-Negation.8) T-Do-insertion is always applied immediately after T-Yes or No question.9) The basic order of transformations for Wh-word questions: T-Wh-word insertion T-Yes or No question T-Do insertion) T-Wh-word switching T-Affix hopping Wh-word insertion rule
6.7 Structural ambiguity(结构歧义) ambiguity: “a word or sentence which exprees more than one meaning” 歧义就是一个单词或句子有好几个意思
歧义分三类：Lexical ambiguity词汇歧义，Surface structural ambiguity表层结构歧义， Underlying structural ambiguity潜在结构歧义
Lexical ambiguity is created by polysemy or homonymy.词汇歧义是由一词多义和同音异义产生 的。
6.8 The theme(主位)-Rheme(述位) theory: • Theme: the initial element of a sentence, carries old or given information and minimal communication dynamism一个句子的最初的元素,携带旧的或给定信息和最小的信息动态。 •
Rheme: new information, the rest part of a sentence except the theme.新的信息,一个句子 除了主题的其余部分。 Transition转化
