奈达翻译理论简介
（一）奈达其人尤金?奈达（EugeneA.Nida）1914年出生于美国俄克勒荷马州，当代著名语言学家、翻译家和翻译理论家。也是西方语言学派翻译理论的主要代表，被誉为西方“现代翻译理论之父”。尤金是当代翻译理论的主要奠基人，其理论核心是功能对等。
尤金先后访问过90个国家和地区，并著书立说，单独或合作出版了40多部书，比较著名的有《翻译科学探索》、《语言与文化———翻译中的语境》等，他还发表论文250余篇，是世界译坛的一位长青学者。他还参与过《圣经》的翻译工作。他与塔伯合著的《翻译理论与实践》对翻译界影响颇深。此书说明了中国与西方译界人士思维方式的巨大差别：前者是静的，崇尚“信、达、雅”，讲究“神似”，追求“化境”；后者是动的，将语言学、符号学、交际理论运用到翻译研究当中，提倡“动态对等”，注重读者反应。中国译论多概括，可操作性不强；西方译论较具体，往往从点出发。他在该书中提到了动态对等，详细地描述了翻译过程的三个阶段：分析、转换和重组，对于翻译实践的作用是不言而喻的。
（二）奈达对翻译的定义
按照奈达的定义：“所谓翻译，是指从语义到文体（风格）在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息。”其中，“对等”是核心，“最切近”和“最自然”都是为寻找对等语服务的。奈达从社会语言学和语言交际功能的观点出发，认为必须以读者的反应作为衡量译作是否正确的重要标准。翻译要想达到预期的交际目的，必须使译文从信息内容、说话方式、文章风格、语言文化到社会因素等方面尽可能多地反映出原文的面貌。他试图运用乔姆斯基的语言学理论建立起一套新的研究方法。他根据转换生成语法，特别是其中有关核心句的原理，提出在语言的深层结构里进行传译的设想。
奈达提出了词的4种语义单位的概念，即词具有表述事物、事件、抽象概念和关系等功能。这4种语义单位是“核心”，语言的表层结构就是以“核心”为基础构建的，如果能将语法结构归纳到核心层次，翻译过程就可最大限度地避免对源语的曲解。按照4种语义单位的关系，奈达将英语句子归结为7个核心句：（1）Johnranquickly.（2）JohnhitBill.（3）JohngaveBillaball.（4）Johnisinthehouse.（5）Johniick.（6）Johnisaboy.
（7）Johnismyfather.
（三）奈达翻译理论的经历阶段
奈达翻译理论的发展经历过三个阶段，分别是描写语言阶段、交际理论阶段和和社会符号学阶段。第一个阶段始于1943年发表《英语句法概要》，止于1959年发表《从圣经翻译看翻译原则》。这一阶段是奈达翻译思想及学术活动的初期。
第二阶段始于1959年发表的《从圣经翻译看翻译原则》，止于1969年出版的《翻译理论与实践》。主要著作有《翻译科学探索》、《信息与使命》。在这10年中，奈达确立了自己在整个西方翻译理论界的权威地位。1964年出版的《翻译科学探索》标志着其翻译思想发展过程中一个最重要的里程碑。第三阶段始于70年代，奈达通过不断修正和发展自己翻译理论创建了新的理论模式———社会符号学模式。奈达在继承原有理论有用成分的基础上，将语言看成一种符号现象，并结合所在社会环境进行解释。在《从一种语言到另一种语言》一书中，奈达强调了形式的重要性，认为形式也具有意义，指出语言的修辞特征在语言交际及翻译中的重要作用，并且用“功能对等”取代了“动态对等”的提法，是含义更加明确。
三、对奈达翻译理论的评价
（一）贡献
奈达是一位硕果累累的翻译理论家。可以说，在两千年的西方翻译思想发展史上，奈达的研究成果之丰是名列前茅的。他的研究范围从翻译史、翻译原则、翻译过程和翻译方法到翻译教学和翻译的组织工作，从口译到笔译，从人工翻译到机器翻译，从语义学到人类文化学，几乎无所不包，从而丰富并拓展了西方的翻译研究领地。
奈达的理论贡献，主要在于他帮助创造了一种用新姿态对待不同语言和文化的气氛，以增进人类相互之间的语言交流和了解。他坚持认为：任何能用一种语言表达的东西都能够用另一种语言来表达；在语言之间、文化之间能通过寻找翻译对等语，以适当方式重组原文形式和语义结构来进行交际。因此也说明，某
一特定民族对世界的认识能力，并不会因为该民族所使用的语言结构“落后”而受到“制约”。奈达产生这种翻译观，与他虔诚信奉基督，长期从事圣经翻译研究不无关系。信奉基督的翻译工作者有一种信念，认为上帝的信息是一种普遍真理，应当而且能够译成万国语言，并为“万国子民”所理解。基于这样的信念，奈达认为，在翻译过程中，译者必须尊重接受语的特征，不要一碰到困难就想自己创造语言，而要尽可能地挖掘接受语的表达潜力，因为每种语言，包括所谓的“原始语言”，都有丰富的手段来表达思想；因此，译文应当尽量使用译文接受者喜闻乐见的、符合接受语表达规范的言语形式。这就导致了他关于“最切近的自然对等”即“动态对等”，以及后来的“功能对等”一说的提出。奈达还在其理论著述中谈到读者反应的问题。他认为，翻译的服务对象是读者或言语接受者，要评判译文质量的优劣，必须看读者对译文的反应如何，同时必须把这种反应和原作读者对原文可能产生的反应进行对比，看两种反应是否基本一致。奈达的这个观点无疑是有其道理的。翻译如果不考虑读者因素，不估计或者测验读者的反应，就可能产生对牛弹琴的译文。比如，把“四书五经”译成现代汉语，如果为了强调原文的古味，而在译文中采用古英语或中世纪英语，一般现代英语读者又怎么能够接受？
首先，他的理论过于集中在解决译文的交际性和可懂性的问题上，因而其适用范围受到了限制。在《圣经》翻译领域强调译文的可懂性自然有其道理，但如果在世俗文学作品的翻译中也始终把译文的可懂性摆在第一位，势必导致原作语言的简化，甚至非文学化。英国翻译家纽马克曾经指出：“如果把《圣经》中那么多奈达认为读者不能理解的比喻统统删去，那么就会不可避免地引起意义的大量走失。”文学作品的一个重要特征，是较多地使用比喻的和新颖的语言，作者的真正意图可能要到字里行间去体味、去捕捉。如果把原作中的比喻形象统统删去，把一切联想的意味统统明说出来，那就会出现这样的结果：译文懂是好懂，但却索然寡味，达不到文学的目的。近年来，奈达越来越多地意识到了这一点，并且不断在修改和完善过去的一些观点。他不再偏重译文的可懂性，而提倡一种“三性原则”，即可懂性、可读性和可接受性并重的原则。另外，他不再全盘否定“形式对应”，而是认为翻译中不可随意打破原文的表达形式。为了扩大他的理论的适用范围，他还特别增加了修辞学内容。其次，奈达曾经提出“翻译是科学”的主张，后来又基本放弃了这一主张。不管是提出还是放弃，他都没有提出充足的、令人信服的论证，这不能不说是一大缺陷。最后，他所提出的“动态对等”建立在读者会有一致的反应这个假设基础上，但读者反应并不是在任何情况下都一致，因此用此作为衡量翻译的标准难以操作。
四、奈达翻译论对我国翻译研究的影响
奈达的理论自20世纪80年代初被介绍进入中国以来，到现在已经成为当代西方翻译理论中被介绍得最早、最多、影响最大的理论。原因如下：奈达与中国翻译学者们保持着密切往来，并积极参与中国翻译研究，推动了中国现代翻译研究的发展。自1980年以来，他访问中国不下10次。他在中国多所院校作过报告，出版语言学和翻译专著并发表论文，甚至与中国学者如谭载喜等合作著书。奈达理论在中国产生的巨大影响是不容忽视的。奈达的“动态对等”理论与中国的传统译论一样，以原文———译文的比较为重点，强调对原文的理解，不涉及翻译的外部因素如权利、意识形态等，政治上十分安全。而且，它们大多是规范性的应用理论，目标是制定以“忠实”为本的翻译标准，与统治我国翻译领域一百多年的严复的“信、达、雅”标准可以相融，因此对中国的主流文化来说，是比较可用的。奈达的译论由于有较强的学术性和较新的视角（如奈达理论中的交际、读者、效果等概念），给中国的翻译研究带来了一些冲击，提高了中国翻译研究的学术性，丰富和更新了中国的翻译理论。尤其是奈达的动态对等理论，一举打破了中国传统译论中静态分析翻译标准的局面，提出了开发式的翻译理论原则，为建立新的理论模式找到了正确的方向。奈达理论与中国的传统译论既互相竞争，又互相依存，一起强化了中国的翻译研究的实用主义路向和传统的道德观念。世界的文化不是朝一元化的方向，而是朝多元化方向发展的。当今世界翻译研究理论各派争鸣，不可能有，也不能由只懂得西方语言的人来建立放之四海而皆准的翻译理论。使用不同语言的国家或民族应该按自己语言的特点，建立与发展自身的翻译理论。我们在进行翻译研究中应该从我国传统的翻译理论中吸取合理的因素，与此同时，也要吸收当代国外翻译理论及国内外其他有关学科的最新成果。这种吸收不只是牵强附会地把古人的翻译见解或主张与西方人的某些说法放在一起，一比高低优劣。要以我们原有
的理论体系为基础，研究我们与西方人在文化背景、思维方式及语言结构等多方面的差异，实事求是地吸吮有益于我们的养分，取长补短，以此建立我国现代的翻译理论。
1.开场白
Good morning.I am very glad to be here for this interview.
2.姓名，英文名，毕业院校，毕业专业，毕业学院
My name is LiShuai, and my English name is Jacky Lee.I\'ve finished my undergraduate
education in Xidian University, Electronic Science and Technology in the college of Technical Physics.
3.性格，爱好，实践经验
I am open-minded, willing and have broad interests like basketball, reading and especially in engineering such as software programming, website design, hardware design.For example, during the past four years, I have accomplished two websites: one is the website of our school, and the other is the website of the doctor forum of china 2007.Furthermore, I am interested in
C plus plus programming language and have written some application programs.In July in the last year,I finished my graduate project with flying colors,which was a software application
about Image Proce .In addition, I have also finished some projects about embedded system by using MCU when I was a junior.
4.为什么想读研,将来愿意从事的方向,读研时的打算
Although I have broad interests in many aspects and grasp the eential knowledge of the major, but I think at present, I can do many things in a superficial level, but not be competent to do things profeionally owing to lack of ample knowledge and ability.So I think further study is still urgent for me to realize self-value.
The major that I hope pursue for my further education is IC design.Because I find integrated circuits are playing a more and more important role in our modern society.And nowadays in China, with the recognition by the government, our domestic integrated circuits industry is growing rapidly and that may provide a lot of chances to us.
I plan to concentrate on study and research in this field in my graduate time.And I hope I can form a systematic view of micro electronics and IC design technology and make a solid foundation for future profeion after three years study here.
5.结束语
OK, that’s all.Thank you very much.
考研英语复试之英语自我介绍
Good morning,my dear teachers,my dear profeors.i am very glad to be here for your interview.my name is song yonghao, i come from luoyang,a very beautiful aicent city.my undergratuade period will be accomplished in chang\'an university in july ,2004;and now,i am trying my best for obtaining a key to tongji university.
Generally speaking ,i am a hard working student especially do the thing i am interested in.i will try my best to finish it no matter how difficult it is.when i was sophomore, i found web design very interesting, so i learned it very hard .to weaver a homepage for myself, i stayed with my pesonel computer for half a month.,and i am the first one in my cla who own his homepage.forthermore,i am a person with great perserverence.during the days preparing for the first examination,i insist on running every day, no matter what the weather was like.and just owning to this,i could concentrate on my study and succeeded in the end.
Well ,in my spare time ,i like basketball, tennis and chinese che.also english is my favorate.i often go to english corner to practise my oral english on every thursday,and write compositions to improve my witten ability .but i know my english is not good enough ,i will continue studying.
Ok, that is all,thank you for your attention.
复试英语自我介绍全文
Hello, my profeors.It’s a fine day today,and i’m very pleased to meet you here.First of all,i’d like to introduce myself to you.My name is ***,my hometown is ***,which is a really beautiful city.Even when i was a young boy,i was very interested in biology science.Every one may have a dream,and i still remember that my dream is to be a biology scientist (just like ZHU KE ZHEN).I liked to make wonders just like,where are we from?Where are we going in the
universe?And then i would find the answers in book by myself.Still today i think that interest is the best teacher in one’s whole life (and knowledge comes from practice).
Second, i will introduce my major in the university.My major is Biological Engineering in *** University.It has a great relationship with biology scince.Their relationship can be shown with an example: Just like a river,biology science,which often finds new discoveries and theories, is at the head of the river.And my major,which lays more stre on practical use, seems to be at the end of it.When both of them interact well enough,the discovries and theories in biology science can be soon turned into products in all of the modern industry.
Four years’ university education gives me a lot of things to learn,a lot of chances to try,and a lot of practices to improve myself.It teaches me not only what to study and how to think,but also to see the importance of practical ability (such as doing expriment as much as poible).In the university life,i have made many good friends.They help me improve my study and research ability, do ererything just like a man,and often give me good example to follow.
Besides what i have introduced myself above,i also have many interests in my spare time.I like playing football,which is an effective way i think to improve my body health,and it can teach me how to join in a group and deal with other people.Drawing and writing is another favor to me.
Above all,i choose the major in order to broad my view in biology scince,and enhance my research ability.I will do my best to join the new group and be good at postgraduate study.
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the
appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca.2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.[2]
Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation.On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords
that have enriched the target languages.Indeed, translators have helped
[3]substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated.
Due to the demands of busine documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and profeional aociations.[4]
Because of the laboriousne of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to
mechanically aid the human translator (computer-aisted translation).[5] The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation
[6]services and has facilitated language localization.Translation studies
deal with the systematic study of the theory, the description and the
[7]application of translation.
