Teaching Program for Lexicology Part One Introduction 1.Definition: a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.2.Functions: to investigate and study the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantics structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.Part Two Words and vocabulary
1.Definition of word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.Relation between sound and meaning: certain sound will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, procees and activities outside the language system.This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logic relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself.The relationship between them is conventional.3.Relation between sound and form: Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, that is, the sound should be similar to the form. Reasons for the differences between them:
1) English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3) Some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) The borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.4.Vocabulary: it refers to both the total number of the words in a language, and all the words used in a particular historical period, as well as all the words of a given dialect.
The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.5.Claification of words 1) Basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary; (By use of frequency) a.Characteristics of basic word stock:
① All national character; ② Stability; ③ Productivity; ④ Polysemy; ⑤ Collocability.b.Characteristics of non-basic stock:
① Terminology; ② Jargon; ③ Slang; ④ Argot; ⑤ Dialectal words; ⑥ Archaisms;
⑦ Neologisms.2) Content words and functional words; (By notion) a.Content words: denote clear notions, also called notional words, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.b.Functional words: do not have notions of their own, also called form words, including prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles.
3) Native words and borrowed words.(By origin)
1 a.Native words: words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, whose amount is roughly 50,000 to 60,000.Features: ① Neutral in style; ② Frequent in use.
b.Borrowed words: also known as loan words or borrowings, words taken over from foreign languages, constituting 80% of the modern English vocabulary.Four claes: ① Denizens; ② Aliens; ③ Translation-loans; ④ Semantic-loans.
Part Three The development of English vocabulary 1.History of the English vocabulary: 1) Old English (450-1150):
Resources: Latin (Christianity), Scandinavian Features: a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words, a highly inflected language.2) Middle English (1150-1500): Resources: French, Dutch Features: retained much fewer inflections 3) Modern English (1500-up to now): Resources: Latin, Greek, other countries Features: word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions.English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.2.Growth of present-day English vocabulary: Main resources of new words: a.Rapid development of science and technology; b.Social, economic and political changes; c.The influence of other cultures and languages.3.Modes of vocabulary development: 1) Creation: the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.2) Semantic change: an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3) Borrowing: French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian 4) Reviving archaic or obsolete words: 5) Old words falling out of use: Part Four Word formation (I) 1.Morphemes: the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2.Types of morphemes:
1) Free morphemes: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.They have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.They are identical with root words.2) Bound morphemes: Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.
Two types: a.Bound root: part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just
like a free root.
b.Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.
① Inflectional affixes: attached to the end of words to indicate
grammatical relationships.
② Derivational affixes: added to other morphemes to create new words,
including prefixes and suffixes.3.Root: the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total lo of identity Part Five Word Formation (II) 1.Affixation: the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems, also known as derivation.1) Prefixation: non-cla-changing nature, only to change meanings of the stems
a.Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in- (il-, ir-, im-), non-, un- e.g.amoral (nonmoral), apolitical; disloyal, disobey; injustice, illegal, irresistible, immature; non-smoker, non-claical; unfair, unwilling b.Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un- e.g.decentralize, de-compose; disunite, disallow; unhorse, unwrap c.Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo- e.g.maltreat, malpractice; misconduct, mistrust; pseudo-friend, pseudo-science d.Prefixes of degree or size: aarch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, sur-, untra-, under e.g.archbishop; extra-strong; hyperactive; macrocosm; microcomputer; mini-election; outlive; overweight; subheading; superfreeze; surtax; ultra-conservative; underdeveloped e.Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- e.g.anti-nuclear, anti-government; contraflow; countersign; pro-democracy f.Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans- e.g.extramarital; forehead; inter-city, interpersonal; intra-party; telecommunications; trans-world, transcontinental g.Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re- e.g.ex-profeor; foretell; post-election; pre-prepared; reconsider h.Number prefixes: bi-, multi-, poly-, semi-, hemi-, tri-, uni-, mono- e.g.bilingual; multi-purpose; polysyllable; semi-naked; hemisphere; tricycle; uniform; monorail i.Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, vice- e.g.autobiography; neo-Nazi; pan-European; vice-president 2) Suffixation: to change the grammatical function of stems, that is, to change the word cla a.Noun Suffixes: a) Denominal nouns Concrete: -eer, -er, -e, -ette, -let e.g.profiteer; teenager; hoste; kitchenette; booklet; gangster Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ry, -hood, -ing, -ism, -ship e.g.wastage; kingdom; slavery; adulthood; farming; terrorism; friendship b) Deverbal nouns Nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er (-or) e.g.aistant; employee; respondent; writer Abstract nouns: -age, -al, -ance, -ation (-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing,
3 -ment e.g.carriage; dismial; attendenc; protection; decision; existence; building; statement
c) De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ne
e.g.popularity; happine d) Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist
e.g Chinese; Australian; socialist b.Adjective suffixes:
a) Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -le, -like, -ly, -y
e.g.wooded; succeful; childish; pricele; lady-like; cowardly; smoky
b) Deverbal suffixes: -able, -ible, -ive, -ative, -sive
e.g.washable; permiible; decisive; productive c.Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise e.g.naturally; homewards; downward; clockwise d.Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize e.g.originate; darken; beautify; modernize Note: -nik, folknik, peacenik, jazznik 2.Compounding: the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.1) Characteristics: a.Phonetic features: the word stre usually occurs on the first element if there is only one stre, in case of two strees, the compound has the primary stre on the first element and the second stre on the second.
b.Semantic features: every compound should expre a single idea just as one word, the meaning of which cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compounds.c.Grammatical features: a compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, and show its plural forms by taking inflectional –s at the end.In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.2) Formation: a.Noun compounds: n.+ n.: moon walk, end product
★ n.+ v.: toothache, frostbite
★ v.+ n.: crybaby, tell-tale
★ a.+ n.: deadline, blueprint
★
n.+ v-ing.: air-conditioning, brainwashing
★ v-ing.+ n.: cleaning lady, wading bird
★ n.+ v-er : stockholder, crime reporter
★ adv.+ v.: outbreak, downfall
★ v.+ adv.: sit-in, have-not
★ v-ing + adv.: going-over, carryings-on adv.+ v-ing : up-bringing b.Adjective compounds:
n.+ v-ing : law-abiding, record-breaking
★
+ v-ing : easy-going, high-sound
n.+ a.: warweary, thread-bare
★
4 + a.: deaf-mute, bitter-sweet n.+ v-ed: custom-built, town-bred
★ + v-ed : far-reached, hard-won num.+ n-ed : ten-storey, four-leg num.+ n-ed : one-eyed, two-legged adv.+ v-ing : forth-coming, out-going v-ed + adv.: worn-out, washed-up b.Verb compounds Through conversion: honeymoon, moonlight Through backformation: chain-smoker, ma production 3.Conversion: the formation of new words by converting words of one part of speech to another part of speech.1) To noun:
a.Verb to noun:
State (of mind or sensation): doubt, want, love, hate, smell, taste Event or activity: search, laugh, swim, release, attempt Result of the action: catch, find, reject, answer, bet Doer of the action: help, cheat, coach, scold, flirt Tool or instrument to do the action with: cover, wrap, cure, paper Place of the action: pa, walk, drive, retreat, turn b.Adjective to noun:
Words fully converted: a white, a native, finals, a Republican, a drunk, newly-weds Words partially converted: the poor, the rich, the wounded, the more affluent, the most corrupt c.Miscellaneous conversion: including nouns converted from conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions 2) To verb: a.Noun to verb: To put in or on N
e.g.to pocket the money; to can the fruit; bottle; shelve To give N or to provide with N
e.g.to oil the machine; to give shelter to the refugees; fuel; arm; finance To remove N from
e.g.to skin the lamb; to juice the oranges; core; feather To do with N
e.g.to pump water; to knife the steak; brake; hammer; shoulder To be or act as N
e.g.to nurse the baby; to captain the team; tutor; pilot To make or change into N
e.g.to cash the cheque; to orphan the boy; fool; knight; widow To send or go by N
e.g.to mail the letter; to bicycle; ship; boat b.Adjective to verb: empty, dirty, warm cool, slow, clear, dry, narrow, free, blind c.Miscellaneous conversion: much, but, off
5 4.Blending
1) head + tail: automobile + suicide = autocide; motor + hotel = motel; channel + tunnel = chunnel 2) head + head: communications + satellite = comsat; teleprinter + exchange = telex; situation + comedy = sitcom 3) Head + word: medical + care = medicare; Europe + Asia = Eurasia; automobile + camp = autocamp 4) Word + tail: lunar + astronaut = lunarnaut; work + welfare = workfare 5.Clipping
1) Front clipping: earthquake – quake, telephone – phone, telescopefridge 4) Phrase clipping: public house – pub, zoological garden – zoo, popular musicdonation, emoteloafer, sculptburglar, begmerry-making, babysitlazy 8.Words from proper names 1) Names of people: ampere, farad, ohm, volt, watt, diesel, Mackintosh, bloomers, Cherub, Proteus, bobby, quisling, quixotic, sadism, robot, czar 2) Names of places: china, afghan, jersey, champagne, rugby 3) Names of books: utopia, odyey, Babbit, Pickwick 4) Trade-names: nylon, orlan, Dacron, rayon, Xerox, boycott, cabal Part Six Word Meaning 1.Reference: is the relationship between language and the world.Only when a connection has been establish between the linguistic sign and a referent does the sign become meaningful.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.2.Types of meaning:
1) Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning: a.Grammatical meaning: refers to that part of the meaning of the word which
6 indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.This meaning becomes important only when it is used in actual context b.Lexical meaning: a) Conceptual meaning: is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.b) Aociative meaning: is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning, it differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate. Connotative meaning: refers to the overtones or aociations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotation. Stylistic meaning: many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate from different context. Affective meaning: indicates the speaker’s attitude toward the person or thing in question.(appreciative and pejorative emotion) Collocative meaning: consists of the aociations a word acquires in its collocation, that is, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discuion.Part Seven Sense Relations 1.Polysemy: is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages, which means a word has two or more sense.Two procees of word sense development are radiation and concatenation.2.Homonymy:
a.Perfect homonyms: b.Homographs: c.Homophones: 3. Synonymy: words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.
Types : ① absolute synonyms; ② relative synonyms.4.Antonymy: words which are opposite in meaning.Types: ① contradictory terms; ② contrary terms; ③ relative terms.5.Hyponymy: deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, that is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.These specific words are known as hyponyms, the general words are called superordinates.Part Eight Changes in word meaning 1.Extension: also known as generalization, refers to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.e.g.manuscript, fabulous, barn, picture, mill, journal, companion, thing, busine, condition, matter, article, sandwich, vandal 2.Narrowing: also called specialization, is a proce by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.e.g.deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl
7 3.Elevation: refers to the proce by with words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.e.g.nice, angel, marshal, constable, fond, governor, minister, shrewd 4.Degradation: is a proce whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. e.g.wench, villain, silly, lust, paper, dish Subjective and objective meanings: pitiful, hateful, fearful, doubtful, suspicious Part Nine English Idioms 1.Characteristics: ① semantic unity; ② structural stability 2.Claification:
a.Nominal idioms: white elephant, flesh and blood, Jack of all trades
b.Adjective idioms: cut and dried, as poor as a church mouse, beyond the pale, up in the air
c.Verbal idioms: make it, follow one’s nose, fall flat, give sb the sack (bag), sing a different tune, chop and change, swim against the stream, come back to earth, make ends meet, keep the pot boiling, let the dog see the rabbit, bite the hand that feeds one
d.Adverbial idioms: tooth and nail, in nothing flat, through thick and thin, in clover
e.Sentence idioms:
e.g.● A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
● Never do things by halves.
● Upon my word!
● Kill the goose that laid the golden egg.
本校即将开设英语词汇学课程，以上是本人深入学习英语词汇学及其教学法后整理的第一章教案，比较系统的展现词汇学理论知识，使学生了解英语词汇的历史演变过程、现状及其发展趋势，对英语词汇的构成、构词法有一个系统直观的把握，了解英语词汇学习与使用的规则和特点，记忆词汇学习的方法和技巧，增进词汇量，进而帮助提高学习者运用英语的能力。90后有着不同于70后或80后独特的性格特征, 他们的学习态度在外语学习中起着重要的作用，开课之前我院将以调查问卷形式了解专业学生对英语词汇学学习的态度及需求,就所发现的问题提出教学建议。课程设计将充分考虑教材问题、教学法问题、教学工具问题、作业问题、评价问题、自主学习工具问题等等。教学内容以学习任务的方式呈现，通过引导式的学习活动，培养学生自主探索和建构知识的能力。
